Installing and Configuring cloud-init in Linux

In Linux, you can access and edit text files using a text editor that is designed to work with plain text. These files are not specifically coded or formatted. Linux allows one to create a file in numerous ways. The fastest is, probably, Linux Command Line or Terminal. For all users—especially server administrators—who must rapidly generate text files, scripts, or configuration files for their work, this is a very important ability. Let's proceed to the guide on four standard techniques for creating a text file on the terminal. Don't forget that Hostman offers a reliable managed Linux VPS for your projects. Prerequisites for File Creation in Linux Ensure these prerequisites are met before generating files in a Linux environment using the command-line interface: Access to a Functional Linux System: You must either have a Linux-based operating system installed on your computer or secure access to a Linux server via SSH (Secure Shell) protocol. Operational Terminal Interface: Confirm that your terminal application is accessible and fully operational. The terminal serves as your primary gateway to executing commands. Adequate User Permissions: Verify you can create files within the chosen directory. You may need to use sudo (for directories with access restrictions) to escalate privileges. Fundamental Commands Proficiency: You must get familiar with essential commands, such as touch for file creation, echo for printing text, cat for viewing file contents, and text editors like nano, vim, or vi for editing files directly. Text Editing Utilities: Ensure your system includes text editing tools: nano for command line simplicity, vim for advanced configurations, or graphical options like gedit for user-friendly navigation. Directory Management Expertise: Develop familiarity with directory navigation commands like cd for changing the working directory and ls for listing directory contents. This knowledge streamlines your workflow and avoids potential errors. Using the touch Command Generally, we use the touch command to create empty files and change timestamps. It will create an empty file if it doesn't exist already.  To create a text file in the current directory with the touch command: Open your terminal emulator. Type the command: touch filename.txt Change "filename" to your desired name. The timestamps for access and modification will be updated without changes in file content if the file exists already. Otherwise, an empty file is created with a given name.  Press Enter—if it is successful, there will be no output. Use the ls command to list the directory content and verify file creation. Using the echo Command Redirection The echo command is widely used to display text on the terminal. But its capabilities go beyond that; it may also be used to write content to a file or create an empty file. For this, combine the echo command with double redirect symbols (you can also use a single >) and the desired filename. A text file can be created by redirecting the output of the echo command to a file. See how it works: Open your terminal emulator. Type the command: echo “Your text content here” > filename.txt Replace the text in double quotations (do not delete them) with yours to add it to the file.  After you press Enter, your text will be added to the file filename.txt. It will overwrite an existing file, if there is one. Otherwise, it will just create a new one. Press Enter. To verify that the file has been created and contains the desired content, use cat command to display the content.  Using the cat Command Redirection In Linux, the cat command is mostly used to concatenate and show file contents. It can, however, also be used to generate a text document by redirecting the standard output of cat to a file. Open your terminal emulator. Type the following command: cat > filename.txt Replace filename.txt with the name for your text file. This command instructs cat to receive input rom the terminal and to redirect it into the filename.txt. Press Enter. The terminal will be waiting for input.  Enter the text you want in the file. Press Enter after each line. Press Ctrl + D when you are done. This signals the end of input to the cat and saves the content.  Run the cat command to check that the file has been created and contains the desired content. Start using Hostman efficient S3 storage Using printf for Advanced File Creation The printf utility is a powerful alternative to echo, offering enhanced formatting options for structuring text. It allows users to create files with precisely formatted content. Open the terminal. Use printf to define the text layout, incorporating formatting elements like newlines (\n) or tabs (\t). Redirect the output to a file using the > operator. Example: printf "First Line\nSecond Line\nIndented\tThird Line\n" >  formatted_file.txt Run the cat command to inspect the file's content and ensure the formatting matches expectations. Append Without Overwriting: To add content to an existing file without overwriting its current data, replace > with the append operator >>: printf "Additional content here.\n" >> formatted_file.txt Using a Text Dditor You can also create new files in linux text editors. There is always at least one integrated command-line text editor in your Linux distribution. But you can choose and install a different one according to your preferences, for example, Vim, Nano, or Emacs. Each of them has its own features and advantages. Vim vim, which stands for "Vi IMproved," is a very flexible and adaptable text editor. It is well-known for its modal editing, which allows for distinct modes for various functions like text entry, navigation, and editing. It allows split windows, multiple buffers, syntax highlighting, and a large selection of plugins for extra features. To create a text file using vim, follow the steps below: Open vim, with the desired filename as an argument. Press i to switch to Insert mode. Start typing and editing the filename.txt.  To save and exit, press Esc to ensure that command mode is running. Type: wq (write and quit) and press Enter. Nano nano is ideal for short adjustments and straightforward text files because it is lightweight and requires little setup. It provides support for basic text manipulation functions, search and replace, and syntax highlighting. To create a text file using nano, follow the steps below:  Run nano with the desired filename as an argument. It will open a new buffer for editing the file filename.txt. Start typing and editing the filename.txt.  To save and exit, press Ctrl + O to write the file, confirm the filename, and then press Ctrl + X to exit Nano. Emacs emacs is a powerful and flexible text editor that supports syntax highlighting, multiple buffers, split windows, and integration with external tools and programming languages. To create a text file using emacs, follow the steps below:  Open emacs, with the desired filename as an argument. Start typing and editing the filename.txt.  To save and exit, press Ctrl + X, followed by Ctrl + S to save the file, and then Ctrl + X, followed by Ctrl + C to exit Emacs. Note: If a message states that "VIM command not found", "nano command not found" or "emacs command not found" in Linux, it typically means that the vim, nano or emacs text editor is not installed on the system, or it's not included in the PATH environment variable, which is a list of directories where the operating system looks for executable files. To resolve this, install the text editor first using the command:  apt-get install vim apt-get install nano  apt-get install emacs Gedit An intuitive text editor that supports working with plain text and has syntax highlighting for programming languages. A straightforward graphical interface makes it usable for various tasks, from quick edits to complex document preparation. Open the Gedit Application: Launch Gedit either through the applications menu or by executing the following command in the terminal: gedit example.txt Gedit will create a new file if the specified one does not exist. Input Your Text: Type or paste your desired content into the editor. Save the File: Save your work with Ctrl + S or select File > Save. If creating a new file, specify a filename and a location. Verify: Return to the terminal and confirm the file exists with the ls command or review its content with cat. Linux File Creation Recommendations Ensure you have sufficient permissions to create files in the target directory. If they are insufficient, consider working in a directory where you have full rights (or elevate privileges with sudo). Check if a file with the identical name is already present before using the > operator, as the command will overwrite existing content. To prevent data loss, opt for the append operator >>. Familiarize yourself with the printf, echo, and text editors like vim or nano. These tools will help you reduce errors when working with files in Linux, as well as boost productivity. Use printf for creating files requiring structured content, such as configuration files or scripts with precise formatting needs. Conclusion Now you have acquainted yourself with the fundamental skill of creating a file in Linux using the terminal! Using the Linux command line, several fast and efficient methods exist to create and manage text files. Apply several techniques to meet a different requirement using the touch, echo, cat, printf commands, or text editors like vim, nano, gedit, or emacs. Users can select the method that sufficiently meets their requirements, such as creating empty files, appending text, or significantly modifying material. In summary, any of these methods enable Linux users to easily and quickly handle text files straight from the command line.

The popularity of the powerful and versatile Linux operating system lies in the variety of available versions. From Ubuntu to Red Hat, from Mint to Fedora, each Linux version offers users unique features and benefits. Hostman offers a reliable managed Linux VPS. It is important to check Linux OS version for compatibility, as varied versions have different software requirements. Using an older version may not allow you to install and run the latest software updates. Some hardware components may not be supported by certain Linux versions. Knowing your OS version can help you troubleshoot any compatibility issues. Therefore, it is important to check the Linux OS version and know which one you're using.  Knowing your OS version in Linux is obligatory for security reasons. All operating systems release updates to address security vulnerabilities, and Linux is no exception. If you know your OS version, you can be sure that the necessary security updates are installed. This is especially important for businesses and organizations dealing with confidential information and requiring strong security control. Another reason for checking Linux OS version is for support purposes. Various versions differentiate by support lifecycles. They have limited time to receive updates and support from developers. Knowing your OS version gives you an idea of ​​when it needs to be updated. An unsupported Linux version can leave your system vulnerable to security threats and compatibility issues. What is a Linux Version A Linux version, commonly termed a distro or distribution, is a customized version of the Linux operating system. It comes with a tailored mix of software, desktop environments, and functionalities. These distributions are custom-made to meet the varied needs and desires of their users. This comprises everything from individual PC users to huge corporations. Linux's open-source nature and flexibility enable various people and organizations to create and modify these distributions to meet specific needs. For example: Distributions such as Ubuntu, Debian, and Linux Mint are pretty useful for beginners because they offer user-friendly interfaces, extensive documentation, and a strong community network. Advanced distributions like Arch Linux grant unparalleled customization and autonomy, ideal for users who prefer crafting their systems from the ground up. Server-oriented distributions like CentOS and Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) are engineered for reliability, security, and top-tier performance, making them perfect for enterprise environments and critical applications. Specialized distributions like Kali Linux for security testing and Tails for anonymity are designed for specific purposes. A typical Linux distribution includes the Linux kernel (which controls hardware), a package manager (for installing and updating applications), and a set of default applications. The desktop environment (like GNOME, XFCE, or KDE) can be tailored in appearance and functionality to align with user preferences. Popular Linux distributions and their versions It’s important to check the Linux OS version as the operating system offers a large selection of distributions, each with its own unique features and characteristics. Common forms include Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat, CentOS, Fedora and Mint. Ubuntu is famous for its user-friendly interface and regular updates. Debian is known for its strict adherence to free software principles. Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) offers a stable and secure platform for businesses. CentOS provides similar features to users for free. Fedora is distinguished by its frequent updates and use of the latest software. Mint features a more traditional desktop environment. Each version differs in software, desktop environment, and support lifecycle. Each distribution has various versions or releases with different code names and updates. Ubuntu has editions such as Bionic Beaver, Cosmic Cuttlefish and Disco Dingo, while Fedora has editions such as Silverblue and Workstation. They satisfy different needs and preferences of a wide range of users. Each Linux distribution has its own unique version numbering system, because it is an open-source operating system developed and maintained by a community of developers. Therefore, each distribution has its own set of developers who make decisions about naming and numbering their releases. Users can easily determine which version they are using and what changes have been made since the last update, and developers can track their progress and plan future releases.  Typically a three-level version numbering system with numbers separated by dots is used. The first number is a major release for updates or changes to the distribution, the second number is a minor release for bug fixes, security updates, and minor feature additions, the third number is a hotfix release for minor bug fixes and updates. Ubuntu uses a version numbering system in the format 'XX.YY.ZZ', where the first number is a year, the second is a month of release, and the third number is incremented with each new release that month. The system displays the age of release and frequency of updates. Code names, such as names of animals or cities, are also used to recognize releases of Linux distributions. Fedora uses code names for its releases like 'Bordeaux' and 'Heisenbug' to make it easier for users to navigate the different versions. There are many ways to find out the version of the Linux operating system and get distribution information about it. We’ll cover the most commonly used. Read on to learn how to check OS version in Linux. How to check the Linux OS version through the 'lsb_release' command You can apply the lsb_release command to check the Linux OS version. You’ll receive detailed information about the distribution, release, and codename of your operating system. To start, open the terminal; Type the command: lsb_release -a Press Enter to view a list of information displayed in your terminal. The Distributor ID line is a name of your Linux distribution, for instance, Ubuntu, Fedora, or CentOS. The Description line is a brief description of your Linux distribution with details such as the release number and the codename of your system. The Release line is a display of the specific version of your Linux distribution, such as '18.04' for Ubuntu or a name like 'Bionic Beaver.' The Codename line is your system’s codename assigned to each version of a Linux distribution, such as 'Bionic Beaver' for Ubuntu 18.04. How to check the OS version in Linux through the 'cat /etc/os-release' command You can apply the cat /etc/os-release command to check the OS version in Linux. It will help you quickly determine your OS version and show detailed information. To start, open the terminal;  Type the command: cat /etc/os-release Press Enter to view a list of information displayed on your terminal. The ID field is the name of your Linux distribution, such as Ubuntu or CentOS. The VERSION_ID field is the specific version of that distribution, such as Ubuntu 18.04 or CentOS 7. The cat /etc/os-release command shows other useful information about your operating system, such as the name and version of the operating system kernel, the desktop environment or window manager you are using, and the OS build and release date. How to check version of OS in Linux through the 'uname -a' command You can apply the uname -a command to check the Linux OS version. It displays detailed information about your system's kernel version, architecture, processor type, hostname, and even the date and time of the last system boot. To start, open the terminal;  Type the command: uname -a Press Enter to view a list of information displayed on your terminal. The output typically includes the Linux operating system kernel version and system architecture to ensure that you download and install the correct version of the software, avoiding compatibility issues and potential bugs. The command also provides information about the last time the system booted for analyzing system performance and identifying potential problems. Other ways to check OS version in Linux The hostnamectl command This is a new way to check the Linux OS version, available on systems using systemd. It provides more detailed data than previous methods, including kernel version, architecture, and hardware platform. To get the output, open the terminal;  Type the command: hostnamectl Press Enter to view a list of information displayed on your terminal. The /etc/os-release file The /etc directory contains configuration files and scripts used by the system, including the os-release file with information about the OS version To get the output, open the terminal and enter the command: cat /etc/os-release The /etc/issue file This file with system information is used for login prompts as well as for checking the OS version in Linux. To get the output, enter the command: cat /etc/issue The name and version of the operating system are displayed here. The version file Some Linux distributions have a version file in the /etc directory with information about the distribution and version. To get the output, open the terminal and enter the command: cat /etc/version The distribution name and version number are displayed here. How to Check Linux OS Version Using GUI This operating system has several ways to check your OS version. We have already explored the common methods through the command line interface. Now let’s learn how to check the Linux OS version without command. This is where the graphical user interface (GUI) comes into play, offering a convenient way to access system information. You need to access the system settings: To start, click on the 'Activities' button on the top-left corner of the screen; Enter 'system' in the search bar; Navigate to the 'System Settings' window and click the 'Details' option to display the OS name, version, and other system information in a new window. Checking the OS version in any Linux distribution is similar and differs slightly only in names of the buttons or windows in the search bar:   In Ubuntu click on the 'Activities' button and type 'System Settings' in the search bar, then navigate to the 'Details' tab. In Fedora click on the 'Show Applications' button and type 'Settings' in the search bar, then navigate to the 'About' tab. In CentOS click on the 'Applications' button and navigate to 'System Tools' and then 'Settings', then navigate to the 'System' tab. Checking the OS Version in Linux FAQ Let's go over a few frequently asked questions about Linux OS versions. Why is it vital to check the OS version in Linux? Verifying the OS version in Linux is essential for ensuring compatibility, maintaining security, and accessing support. Each version has distinct software prerequisites, life cycle durations, and security patches. How often should I check my Linux OS version? Consistently verifying your OS version is crucial, especially before adding new software or updates. This practice keeps your system current and secure. What are some of the widely recognized Linux distributions? Some widely recognized Linux distributions are Ubuntu, Debian, Kali Linux, Raspberry Pi, CentOS, Fedora, and Linux Mint. Each one boasts unique features designed to cater to the diverse needs of its user base. Can I check the Linux OS version using a GUI? Yes, you can check the Linux OS version via the GUI by heading to the system settings and locating the 'Details' or 'About' section, depending on your particular distribution. Why do various Linux distributions have unique version numbering systems? Each Linux distribution is developed and maintained by a different community or organization. Consequently, they all have unique version numbering systems to monitor progress and schedule future releases. For instance, Ubuntu's version number format is 'XX.YY.ZZ', where 'XX' denotes the year, 'YY' indicates the month of release, and 'ZZ' increments with each new release within that month. Conclusion Linux OS versions vary in underlying architecture, package management system, desktop environment, security features, compatibility, and release cycles. Each version has its own unique set of features and benefits, so users can choose the one that best suits their needs and preferences. Understanding your Linux OS version helps you in troubleshooting and solving problems, providing a better insight into the system's capabilities and limitations, allowing you to make informed decisions when it comes to upgrading or modifying the system. Now you have learned the different methods on how to check OS version in Linux through special commands or using GUI. Choose the best way for yourself and use it. Regularly checking and updating your Linux OS version is a good practice to ensure productive and hassle-free operation of your computer. This ensures that the system is running the latest version and all necessary security protocols are installed. If you're already found out your Linux version, don't forget to check how to create a server image on Linux.

Before learning how to create and format a partition, we must know what a partition is. First, think of it this way, if you need to run multiple operating systems on one computer or you have different types of raw data that need a huge space and you want to categorize it while storing it on your computer then you will be needing multiple partitions. A partition is merely a specified closed space on a disk that acts as a storage container. This storage container can be called a separate disk and stores data and information. One disk can be divided into multiple partitions based on the requirements.Partitioning is the process of dividing a physical storage device into separate sections, allowing each to function as an independent drive. This is useful for organizing data, dual-booting multiple operating systems, or ensuring system stability by keeping user files separate from system files. Formatting, on the other hand, prepares a partition for use by creating a filesystem, such as ext4, NTFS, FAT32, or XFS, making it readable and writable by the OS. If you're working with Linux, you may need to partition or format a drive when installing a new hard disk, setting up a USB drive, or troubleshooting storage issues. Fortunately, Linux offers various tools for these tasks, ranging from user-friendly GUI applications like GParted to powerful command-line utilities like fdisk, parted, and mkfs. In this guide, we'll walk you through the entire process of partitioning and formatting a drive on Linux, covering both GUI and terminal-based methods for Linux. Whether you're a beginner looking for an easy way to manage storage or an advanced user needing precise control over partitions, this guide has you covered. Method 1: Partitioning and Formatting Using the GUI (GParted) 1. Install Gparted First off, you need to install Gparted which is a great tool when it comes to creating partitions and formatting them.  Make certain that your repository is refreshed and up to date. sudo apt update For Debian Based Linux: sudo apt install gparted For Fedora Linux: sudo dnf install gparted For Arch Linux: sudo pacman -S gparted 2. Launch Gparted After Gparted has been installed, you can either launch it from the terminal or find it in the Apps section on your Linux OS: To launch it from the terminal, use: sudo gparted 3. Choose Your Drive Within the interface of Gparted, click in the right top corner on the pointed box. Now, two options will appear: /dev/sda /dev/sdb Select /dev/sdb which appears as your secondary drive. Be careful before making any changes to /dev/sda, as it is typically your main system drive. 4. Create, Delete, and Format Partitions First off, let's start by looking at how to delete a partition, which is quite straightforward in GParted. Select the /dev/sdb and then right-click on it and you will see the option to delete it. Clicking the highlighted Delete option will mark the selected partition for deletion. You’ll need to apply the changes to finalize it. If you need to create a new partition then simply right-click on the unallocated space and you will see an option that says New. Choose the desired size for the new partition, and more importantly, select a suitable file system. In most cases, ext4 is recommended for Linux systems due to its stability and wide support. However, if you're creating a partition for use with Windows, you might prefer NTFS, or FAT32 for USB drives that need cross-platform compatibility. I’ll keep the size the same but I’ll adjust the label as Hostman D.  Now comes the key step, formatting the partition. Right-click on the new partition, select Format to, and choose the same file system you selected earlier, such as ext4, FAT32, or NTFS. The format you choose should align with how you plan to use the drive, ext4 for Linux systems, NTFS for Windows compatibility, or FAT32 for broader device support. 5. Apply Changes To apply the changes, click on the tick icon as shown in the screenshot. A pop-up will appear that prompts you to confirm applying  these changes. Click Apply. You will see a success window confirming that the changes have been made. Method 2: Partitioning and Formatting Using the Terminal Now let’s look at how to handle partitioning, formatting, and mounting using the terminal, a more hands on approach suited for those comfortable with command line tools. 1. Identify Your Disk Before starting, make sure to list all connected disks and identify the one you plan to work with. To do that, run the following command: lsblk Or run the fdisk command: sudo fdisk -l I will work with the disk /dev/sdb. Now, let’s head towards the next step to make a partition. 2. Partition the Drive It's very simple to partition the drive using fdisk.  sudo fdisk /dev/sdb Once you run the above command it will open the fdisk menu where you can type in different letters for different actions such as n can be used for creating a new partition, p to display the partition table, d for deletion, and w for write and exit. To create the partition, use n: To print the partition table, use p: To delete the partition, use d: To write changes and exit, use w: If you are using GUID partition tables then use the parted command with sudo: sudo parted /dev/sdb 3. Format the Partition After the partitions have been created, you can format them according to the file system required. For ext4 (Linux systems): sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb5 For NTFS (Windows compatibility): sudo mkfs.ntfs /dev/sdb5 For FAT32 (USB drives, older systems): sudo mkfs.vfat -F 32 /dev/sdb5 4. Mount the Partition Create a mount point: sudo mkdir /mnt/mydrive Mount the partition: sudo mount /dev/sdb5 /mnt/mydrive 5. Auto-Mount at Boot  If you want to auto-mount at the start-up, you need to first acquire UUID: sudo blkid Then, add it to /etc/fstab: UUID=your_uuid /mnt/mydrive ext4 defaults 0 2 Simply press CTRL+O to write out and save, then press CTRL+X to exit from the nano editor. Conclusion Either for creating partitions or formatting the disk, managing disks is a great skill to have up your sleeves. Fundamentally, Windows and Mac OS have a graphical user interface where you can create partitions and format them while Linux provides you the flexibility to do so from the terminal. You can also use the GUI option in Linux to do essentially the same thing. It’s not impossible though to create partitions and format them in Windows and Mac OS from the command line but the popular and heavily used option is the GUI choice by Windows and Mac OS users. Creating partitions within Linux is a top skill when it comes to Linux administration tasks. Even if you are a general Linux user, this could be an interesting area to explore. If you are not familiar with creating, deleting, and formatting partitions then this article could be your guide to understand these concepts in a simple way. We have followed two approaches, one where we used the graphical user interface and a tool called Gparted, and the second approach where we do and handle everything inside the terminal. The main ease comes from knowing that you can format the partition to any file system you choose like NTFS, ext4 etc. We have talked about them in significant detail in this article and we have discussed how to format your partition with one of the many file systems.