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Basic Linux Commands

Basic Linux Commands
Hostman Team
Technical writer
Linux
12.07.2024
Reading time: 9 min
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Linux is an open-source operating system commonly used in server solutions that require high reliability, fault tolerance, and customization flexibility. To interact with a Linux-based OS, you execute commands in a console terminal, especially when managing remote hosts such as cloud servers.

This guide will cover the most basic terminal commands necessary for working with most known Linux distributions:

  • Debian

  • Ubuntu

  • Alt Linux

  • Kali Linux

This guide uses Ubuntu 22.04, installed on a Hostman cloud server.

Basic Linux commands vary in their purposes but  are most commonly needed for the following tasks:

  • Managing files and directories: creating, deleting, moving, copying, and changing permissions of files and directories.

  • System administration: managing processes, installing, and removing programs.

  • Managing network: managing network connections, checking network status, and configuring network interfaces.

Command Input and Output Streams

Before diving into the commands, it is important to understand a few basic principles of how Linux handles data.

Every process (program) in Linux has three standard data streams:

  • stdin (number 0): input stream.

  • stdout (number 1): output stream.

  • stderr (number 2): error stream.

The most basic are stdin and stdout.

Using standard data streams, Linux allows you to build data processing pipelines. In other words, instead of displaying the application's (launched by a command) result in the console, you can pass the data as input to another application, and so on.

For example, a trivial pipeline might look like this:

ls .. | grep 32

Output:

lib32
libx32

First, we execute the ls command, which displays a list of all system files and folders, and then pass its output to the grep command, which searches for directories whose names contain 32.

Environment, Directories, and File Management

This section covers the basic commands in Linux for navigating directories and managing files.

Current Directory Address (pwd)

To see which directory you are currently in, use:

pwd

For example, if you are in the /root directory, the console will display:

/root

Changing to a Specific Directory (cd)

Instead of specifying absolute paths when executing commands, it may be convenient to manually navigate between directories:

cd /usr

In this example, we have navigated to the system directory /usr. You can verify this by explicitly requesting the current directory:

pwd

Output:

/usr

To return to the root directory, execute the cd command without specifying a path:

cd

Let's navigate to another system directory:

cd /sys/devices

To go up one level, use two dots (..):

cd ..

Now we are in the /sys directory.

Listing Files and Directories in the Current Directory (ls)

To explore the contents of the file system, you can request a list of files and directories in the current directory by using the ls command in Linux.

ls

Output:

bin  games  include  lib  lib32  lib64  libexec  libx32  local  sbin  share  src

To see hidden files and directories, add the -A flag:

ls -A

Output:

.ansible  ._history  .rc  .cache  .lesshst  .profile  resize.log  snap  .ssh

A similar command that provides a bit more information about the file system contents, adding pointers to the current and higher levels, is:

ls -a

Output:

.  ..  .ansible  ._history  .rc  .cache  .lesshst  .profile  resize.log  snap  .ssh

You can check the contents of a directory without navigating into it:

ls /var

The console output will contain a list of files and directories of the specified directory, not the user's current location:

backups  cache  crash  lib  local  lock  log  mail  opt  run  snap  spool  tmp

To request a list of all system files and directories, add a slash (/) or two dots (..):

ls /

Or:

ls ..

Creating a Directory (mkdir)

When creating a directory, specify its name:

mkdir mywork

Verify that the directory was created:

ls

Output will show the new directory among others:

mywork  resize.log  snap

Directories can be created recursively (one inside another) using the -p flag:

mkdir myjob/inner -p

Check for the nested directory:

ls ./myjob

Output:

inner

The -p flag also prevents an error when creating an existing directory. For example, try creating the directory again in the usual way:

mkdir mywork

The console will display an error:

mkdir: cannot create directory 'mywork': File exists

However, with the -p flag, there will be no error:

mkdir mywork -p

Creating a File (nano)

Creating a file and filling it with content is done through the console text editor nano:

sudo nano myfile

The console terminal will switch to text editing mode. After finishing work with the file, press Ctrl + S to save it and Ctrl + X to close it.

The content of the created file be as follows:

My text

Copying a File or Directory (cp)

The cp command in Linux is used for copying files and directories. Copying creates an exact copy of the file or directory to the specified address:

cp myfile myfile2

Check the file system:

ls

Output shows our new file:

myfile  myfile2  myjob  mywork  resize.log  snap

Check its content:

sudo nano myfile2

It is identical to the content of the original file:

My text

Copying directories requires specifying the recursive execution flag -r:

cp mywork mywork2 -r

Check the current directory:

ls

The directory was successfully copied:

myfile  myfile2  myjob  mywork  mywork2  resize.log  snap

Deleting a File or Directory (rm)

Let's delete the previously created file:

rm myfile2

To delete directories, specify the -r flag:

rm mywork2 -r

You can also use a special command to delete a directory:

rmdir mywork2

Moving a File or Directory (mv)

Moving a file is similar to copying it, but the original file is deleted:

mv myfile mywork

The file will be located in the specified directory.

Moving directories is no different from moving files:

mv myjob mywork

Quick File Content Viewing (cat)

Instead of using the nano editor, you can immediately display the content of a file in the console using the Linux cat command:

cat mywork/myfile

The console will display the following:

My text

System and Network Information

Basic commands to display system data.

System Clock (date)

You can request the system date and time through the console terminal:

date

Output:

Sun Jul 07 09:27:16 PM BST 2024

List of Active Users (w)

You can request a list of all users currently logged into the system:

w

The console output will be similar to this:

05:00:30 up 40 min,  1 user,  load average: 0.02, 0.01, 0.00
USER     TTY      FROM             LOGIN@   IDLE   JCPU   PCPU WHAT
root     pts/0    91.206.179.207   04:51    1.00s  0.09s  0.00s w

List of Active Processes (ps)

You can request a list of running processes:

ps

Output:

PID TTY          TIME CMD
11643 pts/1    00:00:00 
11671 pts/1    00:00:00 ps

Connecting to a Remote Server via SSH (ssh)

ssh is a frequently used Linux command for managing remote hosts through an SSH connection:

ssh root@91.206.179.207

The command above follows this structure:

ssh USER@IP

Replace USER with the remote user's name and IP with the remote host's IP address. The console terminal will then ask for the root password:

root@91.206.179.207's password:

Downloading Files via URL (wget)

Often, some programs are manually downloaded from remote repositories as regular files:

wget https://github.com/nginx/nginx/archive/refs/tags/release-1.25.4.tar.gz

In this example, we download an archive with the Nginx web server from the official GitHub repository. After that, you can check the current directory's status with the ls command to see that the downloaded archive has appeared.

Extracting Archives (tar)

Next you will need to extract files from the downloaded archive:

tar -xvf release-1.25.4.tar.gz

The flags indicate how to perform the extraction:

  • -x means extracting compressed files from the archive;

  • -v means displaying detailed information about the extraction process in the console;

  • -f means that the passed parameters are archive file names.

After extraction, a new folder with the extracted archive's name will appear in the current directory.

After extraction, you can remove the archive.

rm release-1.25.4.tar.gz

Installing and Removing Packages

Commands for managing Linux packages.

Updating the Repository List

Linux distributions have a standard package manager, apt. It is used by default in Debian and Ubuntu distributions. Typically, before using it, update the list of available repositories:

sudo apt update

It also makes sense to update already installed packages in the system:

sudo apt upgrade

You can also view the list of already installed packages in the system:

sudo apt list --installed

The console will display something like this:

Powershell Hr Xj Iijh Lv

Installing a Package

Packages are installed as follows:

sudo apt install nginx

For example, this way we installed the Nginx web server. Very often, during installation, the package manager asks additional questions, which can be answered with yes or no using the console inputs y and n. To have APT automatically answer yes to all questions during installation, add the -y flag:

sudo apt install nginx -y

Removing a Package

To remove a Linux package:

sudo apt remove nginx

Console Management

Commands for managing the console terminal.

Command History (history)

You can view the history of commands entered in the console terminal:

history

Clearing the Console Terminal (clear)

You can periodically clear the commands entered in the terminal:

clear

This will return the command line to its initial (clean) state.

Command Help (man)

You can always get help on any Linux command:

man ls

The console will display information about the command's structure, its possible flags, and parameters.

You can also obtain a shorter and less extensive version of the manual for as follows:

help

Conclusion

In this guide, we discussed the most frequently used commands in Linux. You can use it as a Linux commands cheat sheet, as these are the most basic commands that any user needs to know when working with Linux.

The official Linux kernel project website provides a complete list of commands and official documentation (including command guides, installation, and configuration guides).

Linux
12.07.2024
Reading time: 9 min
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An incremental backup daily at 23:00: Schedule { Name = "WeeklyCycle" Run = Full 1st mon at 00:01 Run = Differential 2nd-5th sun at 23:05 Run = Incremental mon-sun at 23:00 } FileSet Configuration Now, we specify which files and directories will be backed up. This is defined in the FileSet block. Earlier we created /root/test_backups with six files. We’ll specify that path: FileSet { Name = "Full Set" Include { Options { signature = MD5 } File = /root/test_backups } } Explanation of parameters: Name: The name of the FileSet block, used for identification in configuration. Options: Settings that apply to all files listed under Include. signature = MD5: Specifies the checksum algorithm used to verify file integrity. MD5 generates a 128-bit hash to track file changes. Exclude Configuration (Optional) The Exclude block is used to specify files or directories that should not be backed up. This block is placed inside the FileSet definition and acts on files included via Include. 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Maximum Concurrent Jobs: Maximum number of jobs the storage daemon can handle simultaneously. SDAddress: IP address the Storage Daemon is available at. This can be an IP or a domain name. Since in our case the Storage Daemon runs on the same server as the Director, we use localhost. The next block to configure is Device, which defines the storage device where backups will be written. The device can be physical (e.g., a tape drive) or logical (e.g., a directory on disk). For testing, one Device block will suffice. By default, bacula-sd.conf may contain more than one Device block, including a Virtual Autochanger — a mechanism that emulates a physical autochanger (used for managing tapes or other media). It lets you manage multiple virtual volumes (typically as disk files) just like real tapes in a tape library. Locate the Autochanger block and remove the FileChgr1-Dev2 value from the Device parameter: Autochanger { Name = FileChgr1 Device = FileChgr1-Dev1 Changer Command = "" Changer Device = /dev/null } Next, in the Device block below, specify the full path to the directory we previously created for storing backup files (/srv/backup) in the Archive Device parameter: Device { Name = FileChgr1-Dev1 Media Type = File1 Archive Device = /srv/backup LabelMedia = yes; Random Access = Yes; AutomaticMount = yes; RemovableMedia = no; AlwaysOpen = no; Maximum Concurrent Jobs = 5 } Any blocks referencing FileChgr2 and FileChgr1-dev2 should be deleted: Explanation of the parameters: Autochanger Block: Name: Identifier for the autochanger (you can have multiple). Device: Name of the device linked to this autochanger—must match the Device block name. Changer Command: Script or command used to manage the changer. An empty value ("") means none is used—suitable for virtual changers or simple setups. Changer Device: Refers to the device tied to the autochanger, typically for physical devices. Device Block: Name: Identifier for the device. Media Type: Media type associated with the device. Must match the Pool block media type. Archive Device: Full path to the device or directory for storing backups; /srv/backup in this case. LabelMedia: Whether Bacula should auto-label new media. Random Access: Whether random access is supported. AutomaticMount: Whether to auto-mount the device when used. RemovableMedia: Specifies if the media is removable. AlwaysOpen: Whether the device should always stay open. Maximum Concurrent Jobs: Maximum number of simultaneous jobs using this device. Since we previously specified the directory for backup storage, create it: mkdir -p /srv/backup Set the ownership to the bacula user: chown bacula:bacula /srv/backup Next, check the config file for syntax errors: /usr/sbin/bacula-sd -t -c /etc/bacula/bacula-sd.conf If there are no syntax errors, the output will be empty. Otherwise, it will indicate the line number and description of any error. Restart the storage daemon: systemctl restart bacula-sd Creating a Backup Backups in Bacula are created using the bconsole command-line tool. Launch the utility: bconsole If it connects to the Director component successfully, it will display 1000 OK. Before running a backup, you can check the status of all components by entering the command: status This will display a list of the five Bacula system components. To check them all, enter 6. To initiate a backup, enter the command: run From the list, choose the BackupClient1 option (your client name might differ based on previous config), by typing 1. After selecting the option, you’ll see detailed info about the backup operation. You’ll then be prompted with three choices: yes — start the backup process; mod — modify parameters before starting; no — cancel the backup. If you enter mod, you’ll be able to edit up to 9 parameters. To proceed with the backup, type yes. To view all backup and restore jobs and their statuses: list jobs In our case, a backup with Job ID 1 was created: list jobid=1 If the status is T, the backup was successful. Possible statuses in the "Terminated Jobs" column: T (Success) — Job completed successfully. E (Error) — Job ended with an error. A (Canceled) — Job was canceled by the user. F (Fatal) — Job ended due to a critical error. R (Running) → Terminated — Job completed (may be successful or not). You can also monitor backup activity and errors via the log file: cat /var/log/bacula/bacula.log Once the backup finishes, the file will be saved in the specified directory. file Vol-0001 Restoring Files from Backup Earlier, we backed up the /root/test_backups directory, which contained six .txt files. Suppose these files were lost or deleted. Let’s restore them: Launch the Bacula console: bconsole Start the restore process: restore You’ll see 12 available restore options. We’ll use option 3. Type 3. Earlier we used Job ID 1 for our backup. Enter 1.  You’ll enter a file selection mode. Since our files were in the root/test_backups directory, navigate there. All previously saved files should be visible. To restore the whole directory, go up one level: cd .. Then mark the whole test_backups folder: mark test_backups/ Finish selection: done The system will display a final summary showing which data will be restored and the target directory (in our case: /root/restored-files). To start the restore, enter yes. Finally, verify that the files have been successfully restored. Conclusion We’ve now reviewed the installation and configuration of Bacula, a client-server backup solution. Bacula isn’t limited to backing up regular files—thanks to its plugin support, it can also handle backups of virtual machines, OS images, and more.
18 July 2025 · 14 min to read
Linux

Installing Arch Linux in a Cloud Environment

Arch Linux is a lightweight and flexible Linux distribution that provides users with extensive opportunities for customizing and optimizing their systems. It includes a minimal amount of preinstalled software and offers a console-based interface. In most cases, it is used by experienced users: professional developers, system administrators, or hackers. This is due to the complexity of its installation and subsequent configuration, which involves adding the required packages and components to the system. However, these difficulties are justified, because in the end the user gets exactly the system and services they need. In this article, we will explain how to install Arch Linux on your cloud server and perform its basic configuration. Advantages of Arch Linux It is worth noting that Arch Linux is ideally suited as an OS for a cloud server due to its low resource requirements. This distribution also has several other advantages: System UpdatesArch Linux updates automatically when a new OS version is released. Software InstallationPackages can be downloaded both over the network and from a local disk. In addition, the installed software does not need to be specifically compatible with Arch Linux. Rich RepositoriesArch Linux offers a wide variety of packages. Today, there are over 12,000 packages in the official repositories alone. In the community repository, there are even more — over 83,000. Up-to-date DocumentationThe official Arch Linux documentation is actively updated to reflect the latest changes and innovations. This ensures accurate and relevant system information. Active CommunityThis distribution has an active user community ready to help and share their experience. There are many forums, wikis, and repositories where you can find detailed instructions and guides for installation, configuration, and troubleshooting. 1. Preparing for Installation To follow this guide and install Arch Linux, you will need: A cloud server with any operating system (in our case, Debian 11); A link to the Arch Linux image from an official source; An additional disk, which you can attach under the Plan tab in the control panel. Step 1. To install Arch Linux on the server, you must first upload its installation image from an official source in .iso format. For example: wget https://mirror.rackspace.com/archlinux/iso/2025.06.01/archlinux-2025.06.01-x86_64.iso Step 2. Next, add a new disk where the installation image will be stored. It will appear in the system as /dev/sdb. You can specify the minimum disk size. Step 3. Write the installation image to the new disk: dd if=archlinux-2025.06.01-x86_64.iso of=/dev/sdb The writing process will take some time. When finished, verify it with the following command: fdisk -l In the output, you will see that the installation image has been written to the new disk, creating two necessary partitions. Step 4. After writing the installation image, proceed to boot from it. To do this, go to the Access tab and boot the server from the recovery disk. Open the console in the control panel.  Step 5. In the console window, go to the Boot existing OS menu item and press Tab on your keyboard. This will allow you to edit the text at the bottom of the screen. Here, you need to manually replace hd0 with hd1, as shown in the figure below. After that, press Enter to launch the installation program. Step 6. In the system bootloader that appears, select the first option. 2. Partitioning the Disk Now we can partition the main disk (sda). In our case, there will be 3 partitions: a 300 MB UEFI partition (type EFI), a 700 MB swap partition (type Linux swap), and a main filesystem partition taking up all remaining space (type Linux). In your own installation, the number and size of partitions may differ depending on your requirements. Make sure there are no important files on the server’s disk, because it will be formatted later. You may also wish to back it up to preserve important data. Step 1. First, check whether there are any files on the disk you need to save: lsblk The screenshot below shows the list. For creating the described partitions, we will use a 25 GB disk — sda. It currently has Debian 11 installed, which does not contain important files. Step 2. To partition the disk, enter the following command: cfdisk /dev/sda Step 3. In the window that opens, you need to delete all existing partitions. To do this, select a partition and use the Delete button in the lower menu. Step 4. Next, select the New button in the lower menu to create a new partition. Step 5. Then specify the size of the partition to be created. In our case, this is 300 MB for UEFI. Step 6. In the next window, choose Primary. Step 7. The partition is now created, and you need to specify its type. Go to the Type menu and select EFI. Step 8. Now move to the Free space and create 2 more partitions, repeating steps 4 through 7. Partition details were listed at the beginning of this chapter. Step 9. Once all partitions have been created, go to the Write button and select it. To confirm, type yes in the field that appears. Step 10. Partitioning is now complete. To exit the tool, select the Quit button in the lower menu. Step 11. You can verify your work using the lsblk command again. Check in the output that all changes have been successfully applied. 3. Formatting and Mounting the Created Partitions At this stage, the created partitions will be formatted and mounted. Remember, all data will be erased in this process! Step 1. For the first partition, format it using the following command: mkfs.fat -F32 /dev/sda1 This command will create a FAT32 filesystem, which is the recommended format for the UEFI partition. Step 2. Next, assign it a mount point: mkdir /mnt/efi mount /dev/sda1 /mnt/efi Step 3. For the second partition, perform special formatting: mkswap /dev/sda2 Step 4. Then activate the swap partition: swapon /dev/sda2 Step 5. Finally, format the system’s root partition: mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda3 Step 6. After formatting, create its mount point: mount /dev/sda3 /mnt After completing the formatting and mounting, your partitions will be ready for installing and configuring Arch Linux and its main components. 4. Installing the Main Arch Linux Components Step 1. First, let’s install the OS and its core components: pacstrap /mnt base linux grub openssh nano dhcpcd Step 2. Once the installation finishes, you need to generate the fstab file: genfstab -U /mnt >> /mnt/etc/fstab Generating the fstab file makes partition mounting management easier and ensures automatic and consistent mounting at system startup. 5. System Configuration Step 1. To configure Arch Linux after installation, you need to chroot into the OS without rebooting: arch-chroot /mnt Step 2. First, install the nano text editor: pacman -S nano Step 3. Uncomment the encoding for English in the relevant file (you would edit locale.gen): nano /etc/locale.gen Uncomment the line for en_US.UTF-8. After this, save the changes and exit nano, then generate the locales: locale-gen To enable the English language, execute: echo "LANG=en_US.UTF-8" > /etc/locale.conf Step 4. At this step, set up the system clock. For example:  ln -sf /usr/share/zoneinfo/Europe/Nicosia /etc/localtime The region is set. Now synchronize the hardware clock: hwclock --systohc Step 5. Next, set the hostname for your system: echo "hostname" > /etc/hostname Step 6. As the second-to-last step, set the root password. Run: passwd You will be prompted to enter and confirm the password. Step 7. Lastly, set up the previously installed GRUB bootloader to boot the server: grub-install --target=i386-pc /dev/sda Then create the GRUB configuration file: grub-mkconfig -o /boot/grub/grub.cfg This command will automatically configure GRUB. Step 8. Arch Linux is now successfully installed. Exit the chroot: exit Then go to the Access tab in your control panel and switch the server to standard boot mode. After that, click Save and Reboot. You can remove the additional disk after this step. Step 9. The system will boot, but it is not ready for use yet. First, connect to the server and enable the DHCP client daemon: systemctl enable dhcpcd Then start it: systemctl start dhcpcd Make sure the service shows the status active (running). Step 10. Next, configure the SSH connection. First, create a backup of the sshd configuration: cp /etc/ssh/sshd_config /etc/ssh/backup.sshdconf Then set PermitRootLogin to Yes in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file: nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config Finally, enable the SSH daemon: systemctl enable sshd And start it: systemctl start sshd When checking with systemctl status sshd, the service should show active (running) status. Don’t forget to add and configure SSH keys before connecting to the server. 6. Additional Configuration The installation is complete, but you can also perform additional system configuration by reviewing the official Arch Linux setup documentation. To install packages, use the command: pacman -S package_name To update the system, use: pacman -Suy Conclusion In this guide, we reviewed the process of installing Arch Linux on your cloud server and performed its basic configuration. We used a temporary Debian 11 OS and an additional disk for the installation image. By following these steps, you can create a powerful and flexible virtual environment for developing, testing, and running applications based on Arch Linux.
03 July 2025 · 8 min to read

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