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7 Data Analytics Trends for 2022 That You Need to Watch Out For

7 Data Analytics Trends for 2022 That You Need to Watch Out For
Hostman Team
Technical writer
Infrastructure

Over the past few years, data analytics has become a goldmine. The more data a company has, the more insight they have to make smarter decisions. With the data industry worth an estimated $274 billion in 2022, it’s no wonder big data is the driving force for the future.

The pandemic continues to drive business digital transformations. Applications have an improved capacity to interpret incoming data for its user. This means that the opportunities for business growth are endless.

Organizations embrace the cutting-edge data technology available to them. Data analytics continues to evolve, from big data to artificial intelligence (AI), data-driven models are in demand more than ever.

With the pandemic and its economic disruptions, businesses now realize they need to better use the data available to them. With data analytics traditionally used to assess ‘what happened?’ It is now used to predict ‘what will happen?’

With that in mind, let’s take a look at the top seven data analytics trends for 2022 and how they can benefit your business.

Smarter artificial intelligence

With the introduction of artificial intelligence (AI), organizations are experiencing a specialized change in business strategy. AI accelerates business decision making by automating processes that determine data analytics.

By developing training models and testing metrics in agile methodology, AI ensures rapid data insight without the need for data scientists. Organizations are utilizing AI algorithms to measure, predict, and interpret large amounts of data. Data refers to the market, customers, and online applications.

The pandemic and the rise of remote work have increased opportunities to track and measure data. Due to this rise in data availability, establishing a new data-driven culture was necessary. A culture that fuels investments via AI-based technologies produces intuitive data analytics.

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AI systems work with both large and small data sets. The systems protect privacy, are adaptive, and provide a faster return on investment. The advancement of intuitive UIs in services such as metabase analytical services promotes accessibility and efficiency. Simply put, it’s never been easier to interpret data.

Edge computing

CTO of Kinetica, Nima Negahban, describes edge computing as ‘data analysis that takes place on a device in real-time.’ She goes on to say that ‘edge computing is about processing data locally, and cloud computing is about processing data in a data center or public cloud.’

Edge computing delivers data analytics technology closer to the physical asset. From wrist wearables to mobile traffic apps, worldwide spending on edge computing is expected to reach $176 billion in 2022.

To introduce edge computing into business systems, industries need to include IoT app development and other data transformation services.

By processing data storage closer to the devices that collect it, edge computing is more reliable. With real-time processing there is no issue of latency, it is also more cost-efficient than cloud-based storage.

Cloud-based data solutions

As data is being produced in large quantities, there will be an increasing shift towards cloud-based solutions. A database in the cloud involves labeling, cleaning, formatting, and collecting. It equates to a mammoth amount of storage for one location. This is where cloud-based platforms come into play.

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The cloud opens the door for the next generation of data warehousing. With added accuracy and security in the form of an existing QA framework. New practices such as data mesh, data fabric, and Data Vault 2.0 have been intrinsically built via the cloud.

  • Data mesh - a holistic approach that allows data products connectivity across many domains. Enabling an information exchange without the need for storage.

  • Data fabric - architecture that enables data access in a distributed environment.

  • Data Vault 2.0 - based on the potential of the cloud, Data Vault 2.0 provides greater productivity. Driven by metadata for collaborative configuration and management of testing models.

Whilst a private cloud for your business can be costly, a hybrid cloud provides both private and public agility. A hybrid cloud approach offers companies the opportunity to switch between multiple cloud platforms. This is a more cost-effective approach for your business.

Data fabric

Due to our booming digital age, our interconnected ecosystem has become more complex than ever. Finding a solution to connect devices, applications, and data infrastructure formats is a constant challenge. Data fabric emerges as the solution.

Data fabric is a new answer to an old dilemma. With 73% of analytical data going unused, it has become essential for missing data to become discoverable. Data fabrics fuse data from internal silos and external data sources. This leads to the discovery of effective networks and business applications.

More companies are using data fabric architecture to produce more discoverable, pervasive, and reusable data from all environments. This includes private, public, and mulitcloud cloud systems.

Data fabric connects data from contrasting applications to identify new data relationships. It’s a form of referral software that enables rapid decision-making and cost-efficiency. Accelerating hybrid data integration ensures digital security and greater business value.

Data fabric is a technology that will become commonplace over the next few years.

Augmented analytics

Augmented analytics is a leading analytics concept that uses natural language processing (NLP), machine learning (ML), and AI. What used to be handled by a data scientist is now automated to offer economical data sharing and insight discovery.

Augmented analytics produces data integration from internal and external enterprises. Due to the specialist applications, the outcomes are more precise. NLP, ML, and AI ensure in-depth reports and forecasts, data processing, analytics, and visualization.

  • Natural language processing - NLP provides computers with the ability to understand text and spoken words. It’s included in identifying patterns and trends in corporate operations. NLP is essential for tracking Twitter Analytics, understanding customer satisfaction, and smart assistants.

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  • Machine learning - there is a growing use of data analytics and ML to predict what will happen in digital analytics and the best response to counter. Using ML to target specific customer needs, such as analyzing social media activity to determine what product they might buy.
  • AI - AI helps make predictions more accurate, efficient, and cost-effective without the need for human intervention. AI will continue to be implemented in many different industries due to its unique possibilities.

With the introduction of all three, it has never been easier to measure, interpret, and predict results. Targeting specific customer behaviors reduces problems such as customers leaving their digital shopping cart abandoned and inefficient resources.

NLP, MI, and AI have the capabilities to assist business intelligence and aid business users.

Businesses are focussing on operational agility and resilience to recover from difficult market situations.

Automated machine learning

Applying ML models to real-world situations is known as automated machine learning (AutoML). ML is more user friendly when it is automated. It can create and deploy systems that even non-experts can master.

AutoML enhances monotonous workloads. Leaving human interaction free for more complemented questions (think of automation in call centers).

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Businesses are counting on AutoML to increase data insight as end-users have direct access to these applications. As more users utilize this model, generating insight becomes easier and easier.

With the continuous release of machine learning tools, technical aspects of data science will become automated. This accelerates decision making by automating processes that data scientists would generally perform.

Much like how a mobile application is a must for small business development, AutoML is essential for rapid data insight. The more platforms that use it, the faster it becomes.

XOps

XOps has become an important fixture in business enterprise. It encompasses DataOps, ModelOps, AIOps, and PlatformOps, enabling automation of technology and processes. Making it a dominant combination of IT disciplines and strategic decision making when it comes to AI and machine learning (ML).

XOps data professionals can process defined goals that align with their business priorities. Its main focus is to enhance business operations as well as customer experience. Enhancing operations means enhanced security, which awards applications and offers advanced protection from DDoS attacks.

XOps strives to reduce duplication, ensuring more efficient and reliable data outcomes. Enabling XOps data and analytics allows the user to begin automation from the beginning rather than as an afterthought. It allows you to orchestrate your automating software in a way that meets measurable goals. Allowing more efficient data collection.

To cut a long story short

As data science continues to take the spotlight. Breakthroughs in future analytics continue to progress. Presently, data has never been more accessible, with companies able to collect, manage, analyze, and leverage data for future business intelligence.

Data analytics has become an essential part of business functionality. AI trends and data analysis provide valuable insight that improves business automation, accessibility, and intuition.

Organizations that successfully impose the above trends will be able to harness data strategically and efficiently. Tools such as automated machine learning and edge computing can improve customer algorithms via results and feedback.

Ensuring the process of data accumulation and evaluation is accessible, business actions have never been more necessary. Constantly improving analytics means businesses are constantly preparing for the future.

Author: Emily Rollwitz - Content Marketing Executive, Global App Testing

Emily Rollwitz is a Content Marketing Executive at Global App Testing, a remote and on-demand API automation testing tools company helping top app teams deliver high-quality software, anywhere in the world. She has 5 years of experience as a marketer, spearheading lead generation campaigns and events that propel top-notch brand performance. Handling marketing of various brands, Emily has also developed a great pulse in creating fresh and engaging content. She’s written for great websites like Airdroid and Shift4Shop. You can find her on LinkedIn.

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Public vs Private IP Addresses: What’s the Difference?

Every network, whether it’s the entire internet or your home Wi-Fi, needs a way to tell devices apart. That’s where IP addresses come in. An IP address is basically a unique ID made up of numbers separated by dots. IP addresses can be public (or “white”), which are used to connect to the wider internet, or private (internal), which are used within local networks like your home or office. Also, IPs can be static (they stay the same) or dynamic (they change over time), and they follow one of two standards: IPv4 or the newer IPv6. In this article, we’ll break down what IP addresses are, how they work, and why understanding the difference between public and private IPs actually matters. What Is an IP Address and Why Is It Needed? An IP address (Internet Protocol Address) is a unique identifier assigned to every computing device on a network. It consists of numbers separated by dots. When a user visits a website, a request is sent from their IP to a remote server, which then responds with the web page. Without IP addresses, computers and smartphones wouldn’t be able to locate each other online. They wouldn’t know where to send or receive data. An IP address is comparable to a postal code, which tells the postman where to deliver a letter and tells the recipient where it came from. What Does an IP Address Look Like? All IP addresses are unique, since they identify individual devices in a network. However, they follow the same structural format. Examples of IPv4 addresses, which consist of four integers: 78.129.229.78 172.16.254.1 203.0.113.5 192.162.74.34 184.12.203.67 Examples of IPv6 addresses, made up of eight hexadecimal blocks: 2606:4700:4700:0db8:2001:1111 2001:4860:4860::8888 fe80::1a2b:3c4d:5e6f:7g8h 1050:0:0:0:5:600:300c:326b 2001:0db8:aa10:0001:7g8h::00fb Some IPv6 addresses may contain two colons in a row (::), which represent a sequence of zeroes. For example: Full: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:1 Shortened: 2001:db8::1 However, the double colon (::) can only appear once in an IPv6 address, or else it would be unclear how many zeroes are omitted. For instance, the address 2001::5e6f::4860 could ambiguously mean: 2001:0000:0000:5e6f:0000:4860 or 2001:0000:5e6f:0000:0000:4860 If no double colon is used, then either the address is complete or contains full zeroes. Most operating systems allow local communication via a reserved domain name — localhost. Types and Categories of IP Addresses It’s important to distinguish between the types and categories of IP addresses. Categories of IP addresses: Public IP (Public): Identifies a device on the global internet. Private IP (Private): Identifies a device within a local network. Types of IP addresses: Static: The IP address remains the same each time the device connects to the network. Used by corporate servers. Dynamic: A new IP address is assigned each time the device connects. Used by home devices. Classification by protocol: IPv4: Four integers (0–255) separated by dots, 32 bits in size, up to 4.3 billion addresses. E.g., 192.168.1.1 IPv6: Eight hexadecimal blocks, 128 bits in size, nearly unlimited addresses. E.g., fe80::1a2b:3c4d:5e6f:7g8h In summary, categories define whether an IP is public or private, while types define whether it's permanent or temporary. What Is a Public IP and How Does It Work? A public IP address is a public (external) IP that identifies a computing device on the internet. Regular internet users connect to websites and game servers using public IPs. Domain names (like hostman.com), resolved through DNS (Domain Name System), are simply a user-friendly wrapper around public IP addresses. Thus, having a public IP is a prerequisite for any computing device to interact directly with the internet. What Is a Private IP and Why Is It Used? A private IP address is a private (internal) IP used to identify a device within a local network. The main purpose of private IPs is to conserve public IPs, which are limited in number. IPv4 uses 32 bits to encode IPs, yielding a range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255, totaling 4,294,967,296 possible addresses (256^4, not 255^4, because counting starts from 0). With over 8 billion people on Earth, and each using multiple devices (laptops, smartphones, TVs, smart speakers, etc.), there's clearly not enough public IPs for everyone. This limitation is addressed with private IPs. These are used within local networks to identify multiple devices, all of which connect to the internet through a single public IP that represents the whole network globally. Private IPs solve several problems: Communication: Devices like computers, printers, servers, and storage systems can exchange data within a local network without each requiring its own public IP. Thousands of private IPs can coexist under a single public IP. Architecture: Enable dividing networks into subnets, like one for employees and another for guests. Security: Since private IPs are not accessible from the internet, they are shielded from direct attacks like DDoS or port scanning, reducing the risk of hacking. In short, private IP addresses: Enable local communication. Conserve public IP addresses. Reduce internet traffic load. Structure local networks. Increase device security. A practical example: A home Wi-Fi router connects multiple devices (PC, phone, TV, smart speaker). All these are part of the local network and have private IPs. However, the Wi-Fi router itself is part of the global Internet and has a public IP address. Converting a Public IP to a Private IP For an internal device to access the external internet, its private IP address is converted into a public IP using NAT (Network Address Translation) technology. The conversion occurs in several steps: Request: A device with a private IP sends a request to the Internet. Translation: A router with NAT receives the request and replaces the private IP with its own public IP. Response: The remote server receives the request from the router’s public IP and sends back a response. Reverse Translation: The NAT router receives the response and, using a matching table (a list of private IPs of internal devices), forwards it to the correct internal device. In essence, NAT rewrites IPs in data packets, enabling private IP devices to interact with the internet. There are several types of IP substitution: SNAT (Source NAT): Replaces IP in outgoing packets. Outbound requests from a private IP are forwarded through a public IP. DNAT (Destination NAT): Replaces IP in incoming packets. Inbound requests to a public IP are forwarded to an internal device’s private IP. PAT (Port Address Translation): Replaces IP in outgoing packets while retaining the original port. A variation of SNAT. Full Cone NAT: Replaces IPs in both directions. Connections can be initiated by internal or external devices. Combines SNAT and DNAT. Restricted NAT: Replaces IPs in both directions. Only internal devices can initiate connections. A limited version of SNAT + DNAT. Symmetric NAT: Replaces IPs for each unique connection, creating a new mapping every time. Only internal devices can initiate connections. A modified SNAT + DNAT combination. Until the world fully transitions to IPv6, which removes the limitations of IPv4, NAT will continue to be used in Wi-Fi routers, modems, and local networks. Of course, sharing a single public IP among multiple devices isn’t always ideal. For example, if three players are gaming on a remote server using the same Wi-Fi router, and one gets IP-banned for cheating, all three could be banned, which seems unfair. However, in such cases, rebooting the router may assign a new dynamic public IP address. Also, the router's bandwidth is shared among all connected users. So, the more devices are connected to a router, the slower the connection speed for each. Where Do public and Private IP Addresses Come From? Regardless of the IP type, a common question is: Who assigns these identifiers to devices? The answer is: DHCP. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a technology that automatically assigns IP addresses to all new devices in a network. Whether it's a local or global network, IP assignment follows these steps: Discovery: A device connects to the network and sends a DHCPDISCOVER request for an IP. Offer: The DHCP server processes the request, finds a free IP, and replies with a DHCPOFFER, including IP, subnet mask, gateway, lease time, and DNS servers. Request: The device accepts the IP and sends a DHCPREQUEST. Acknowledge: The DHCP server confirms with a DHCPACK. The device is now authorized for the lease duration. In some cases, a private IP can be manually set on a device, which it then proposes to the DHCP server. A public IP can only be manually set if it is static and pre-assigned by an ISP. If an IP conflict arises (two devices use the same IP), the DHCP server reassigns IPs to both. Public vs Private IP: Key Differences Although public and private IPs are structurally identical, they differ in usage context: Characteristic Public IP Private IP Internet Accessibility Yes No Uniqueness Across Networks Yes No Security Lower Higher NAT Use No Yes Cost Paid Free Routing Global Local Manual Assignment No Yes Assigned By ISP Network Administrator Default IP Type Dynamic Static Public IPs are assigned by an ISP via a DHCP server and are required for global internet access. Private IPs are assigned by a local administrator (via DHCP or manually) and are for local network identification. A public IP can connect to the Internet directly. A private IP can only connect to the Internet through NAT using a public IP. Public IPs can be static or dynamic, while private IPs are typically static. When Do You Need a Public IP and When a Private IP? It’s incorrect to view public and private IPs as alternatives. For Internet access, a public IP is essential — without it, the global network is inaccessible. A public IP is needed when a device must be accessible from the Internet — typically web servers or game servers. A private IP is needed for identifying devices in a local network — such as computers, smartphones, routers, or printers. In reality, local and global networks are interconnected. Multiple devices in a local network may have unique private IPs, but all access the Internet through a single public IP. Conclusion Public IPs face outward to the global network; private IPs face inward to local networks. A public IP is essential for Internet access. A private IP is vital for internal network organization — separating devices and conserving limited public IPs. Public IPs are assigned by ISPs, while private IPs are managed by local admins. Both use DHCP to automate the process. Typically, public IPs are dynamic, and private IPs are static. A full shift from IPv4 to IPv6 will eventually eliminate the need for private IPs — but this will take time, resources, and infrastructure upgrades.
06 May 2025 · 9 min to read
Infrastructure

Structure and Types of File Systems in Linux

The Linux file system is a complex tree-structured system that begins at the root. It consists of directories and subdirectories. Every file and file system is interconnected. This structure follows the typical scheme proposed by the FHS — a standard supported by the Linux Foundation. Features of File Systems A file system is how files are named, stored, retrieved, and updated on a disk or storage partition. The file system's structure must have a predefined format that the operating system understands. The organization of a file system involves formatting, partitioning, and the method of storing organized data structures on a hard (or floppy) disk. Such a system shell is divided into two segments: metadata (file name, creation date, size) and user data. Your computer uses this file system to determine the location of files in your storage. For example, Windows' main file systems are NTFS, FAT, and FAT32. NTFS supports three types of file links: hard links, junction points, and symbolic links (NTFS Links). The NTFS structure is one of the most efficient and complex to date. Each cluster on the medium has an entry in the FAT table. Entries indicate the assignment of file parts to a cluster. Each file entry concatenates with other file entries, starting from the first cluster. Since the first FAT system could handle only eight-character filenames, some limitations were lifted in FAT16 and then in FAT32. Types of File Systems in Linux File system types offered during the installation of a Linux-based OS include: Ext Ext2 Ext3 Ext4 JFS XFS Btrfs Swap These file system types have different functionalities and sets of predefined commands. Ext — extended file system. It was introduced in 1992 and is considered one of the first. Its functionality was partly developed based on the UNIX file system. The initial goal was to go beyond the file system used before it (MINIX) and overcome its limitations. Today it is hardly used. Ext2 — "second extended file system". Known since 1993. It was developed as an analog of the previous file system. It implemented innovations in memory volume and changed overall performance. It allows storing up to 2 TB of data. Like ext, it has little prospect, so it should be avoided. Ext3 — third extended file system. Introduced in 2001. It surpasses the previous one in that it is journaled. A journaling file system is one that writes changes (updates) to files and data in a separate journal before these actions are completed. This file system uses an algorithm that allows recovering files after a reboot. Ext4 — fourth extended system. Created in 2006. It overcame many limitations of the third version. It is widely used today and is the default file system in most Linux distributions. Although it may not be the most advanced, it is reliable and stable enough, so it is commonly used in a wide range of Unix systems. Therefore, if you don’t want to overthink the pros and cons of the many file systems you can choose from, experts recommend sticking with this one. Alternative File Systems JFS — created by IBM in 1990. The name JFS stands for Journaling File System. It easily restores data after a power failure and is quite reliable. Moreover, it consumes less processor power than other file systems. XFS — high-performance file system. Created by Silicon Graphics. Originally intended for their IRIX OS, it was later ported to Linux. Today, XFS for Windows also exists. Created in 1990, XFS is a 64-bit high-performance journaling system shell. It works well with large files but not particularly with smaller ones. Btrfs — an alternative file system proposed by Oracle in 2009. It is considered a competing file system to Ext4, although the latter is generally regarded as the better version (faster data transfer, more stability). However, Btrfs has several unique advantages. Overall, it offers excellent performance. Types of Linux Files Linux file types include: regular file named pipe device file soft link (symbolic link) directories socket door File Types Purpose Regular files Storing character and binary data Directories (d) Organizing access to files Symbolic links (l) Providing access to files located on any media Block devices (b) Interface for interacting with computer hardware Character devices (c)   Pipes (p) Organizing inter-process communication Sockets (s)   A directory is a file containing other organized data structures (directories) and provides pointers to them. It acts as a folder in a filing cabinet (grouping related files). But while folders contain only files, directories may contain additional directories (subdirectories). A symbolic (soft) link points to the name and location of a specific file. When a user copies, moves, or otherwise acts on the link, the operation is performed on the file it references. Hard links are created separately. A hard link points to the actual data in the file just like a regular file. Apart from the name, there is no difference between the original file and a hard link pointing to the same data. Both files are regular files. A hard link can only be distinguished from any other regular file by the number of links each has. The number of links is shown in the second column of the ls -l listing. If the number is greater than 1, then additional hard links to the data exist. All physical devices used by Linux are represented by device files. Device files are classified as special characters or special blocks. Special character files represent devices that interact with Linux character by character. Printers are an example of such devices. Block-special files are hard and floppy disks and CD-ROMs interacting with the OS using data blocks. Device files are extremely powerful because they allow users to access hardware devices such as drives, modems, and printers as if they were data files. They can be easily moved and copied, and data can be transferred between devices often without using special commands or syntax. Linux OS Directories The Linux directory structure is tree-shaped (branching). It’s important to highlight a characteristic specific to Unix-like systems: these OSes aim for simplicity and treat every object as a sequence of bytes. In Unix, these sequences are represented as files.  Unlike Windows OS, which has multiple roots, the Linux file system allows only one root. The root directory is where all other directories and OS files reside (denoted by a forward slash /). The entire Linux folder structure is represented in a single directory called the root directory. Main Directories in the Root Directory /homeThis is the home directory. Since Linux is a multi-user environment, each user is assigned a separate object in the system, accessible only to them and the superuser. /bin and /sbinbin stands for binary. This is where the OS stores core program codes. Binary files are executable structured data containing compiled source code.sbin stands for system binary. This directory is reserved for software necessary for system recovery, booting, and rollback. /optStands for "optional". This is where manually installed applications and programs are stored. /usrusr stands for Unix System Resources. This directory contains user-level applications, unlike /bin or /sbin, which house system-level applications.Subdirectories under /usr include: /usr/bin – most binary programs /usr/include – header files needed for source code compilation /usr/sbin – directories for recurring tasks /usr/lib – libraries /usr/src – kernel source code and header files /usr/share – architecture-independent files (documents, icons, fonts)Originally intended for all user-related content, /usr has evolved into a location for software and data used by users. /lib, /lib32, /lib64These are directories of library files — programs used by other applications. /bootA static bootloader that contains the kernel's executable file and other configuration files needed to start the PC. /sysThis is where the user interacts with the kernel. It is considered a structured path to the kernel. The directory is mounted with a virtual file system called sysfs, serving as the kernel interface for accessing data about connected devices. /tmpTemporary files needed by applications during a session are stored here. /devContains special device files that allow software to interact with peripherals. Device files are categorized into character and block devices.A block device performs data input/output in blocks (e.g., an SSD), while a character device handles input/output as a stream of characters (e.g., a keyboard). /procproc stands for process. This directory contains pseudo-files that provide information about system resources. /runThis directory is mounted with a virtual tmpfs file system and holds runtime files related to active processes. These files exist in RAM and disappear when the session ends. /rootThe home directory for the superuser (administrator). /srvThe service catalog. If you use a web server, you can store data for a specific webpage here. File System and Data Storage Paths on Physical Disk Linux directories map the names of structured data to their addresses on the physical disk. Linux directories have a predefined size to store metadata. Files in directories use inodes (index nodes). An inode stores the disk block address and file attributes. Each directory and file information in Linux contains an inode, and the inode itself holds a list of pointers referencing disk blocks. A directory in the file system is an inode that stores information about all structured data names it contains. Another note about inodes: Inodes are unique, but the names pointing to these nodes are not. This is why inodes track hard links. Linux Architecture The architecture of Linux consists of the hardware layer, kernel, system library, system, and utilities. At the top is user space, where user applications run. Below this is the kernel space, where the OS kernel resides. There is also a specific library collection called the GNU C Library (glibc). This library provides the OS call interface that bridges the kernel and user applications. Both user applications and the kernel operate in their own protected address spaces. Each user process has its own virtual address space, while the kernel has a unified address space. The kernel structure includes three main levels: System Call Interface (SCI) – the top level that handles system calls (e.g., file writing). Core kernel code – an architecture-independent object shared across supported architectures. Architecture-specific code – forms the Board Support Package, designed specifically for the processor and platform of the given architecture. Linux architecture is examined from various perspectives. A key goal of architectural decomposition is to enhance understanding. Kernel Tasks The kernel performs several functions: Process management – determines which processes use the CPU, when, and for how long. Memory management – monitors memory usage, allocation location, and duration. Device drivers – serve as interpreters between hardware and processes. System calls – handle service requests from active processes. The kernel is invisible to the user and operates in its own realm (kernel space). What users see (browsers, files) exists in user space. These applications interact with the kernel through the System Call Interface. Linux Operating Layers Linux Kernel – OS software residing in memory that instructs the CPU. Hardware – the physical machine consisting of RAM, CPU, and I/O devices like storage, network, and graphics. The CPU performs computations, reads memory, and writes to RAM. User Processes – running programs managed by the kernel, collectively forming user space. These processes interact with each other via inter-process communication (IPC). OS code executes on CPUs in two modes: kernel mode and user mode. Kernel mode has unrestricted hardware access, while user mode restricts access to memory, SCI, and CPU. This division also applies to memory (kernel space vs. user space) and enables complex operations like privilege separation and virtual machine creation. Linux Distributions Above the OS kernel, a Linux distribution is a collection of applications (typically open-source). A distribution may include server software, admin tools, documentation, and various desktop applications. It aims to offer a consistent interface, safe and simple software management, and often a specific operational purpose. Linux is freely distributed and accessible through multiple means. It is used by individuals and organizations and is often combined with free or proprietary software. A distribution typically includes all software needed for installation and use. Popular Linux distributions include: Red Hat Ubuntu Debian CentOS Arch Linux Linux Mint These distributions can be used by beginners and system administrators. For example, Ubuntu is suitable for novices due to its user-friendly interface. Arch Linux is more suited to professionals, offering fewer pre-installed packages.
05 May 2025 · 11 min to read
Infrastructure

NVMe vs SSD Storage

Fast data retrieval is a need for the 21st century. The data transmission rate can greatly impact application response time, especially when it involves gaming, video editing, website hosting, AI, and machine learning.  SDDs evolved to overcome the shortcomings of hard drives. SSDs, in contrast to HDDs, utilize flash memory, which translates to performance. However, because of the SATA connection, standard SDDs failed to deliver high-performance storage solutions. That’s where PCIe and NVMe came in. This guide provides insights on NVMe vs SSDs. Is SATA a suitable option? Is NVMe good for server and hosting needs? What are the different variants?  SSD Variants There are several variants of solid-state storage, each with its unique characteristics and use cases. Solid-state drives come in different forms utilizing different hardware interfaces ie. IDE/PATA, SATA, and PCIe.  Here are all the different variants of SSD available in the market: IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) / PATA (Parallel ATA): These SSDs are found in legacy systems. They use 40- or 80-pin connectors and are relatively slow because they are based on older technology. SATA(Serial ATA): In early 2000, the SATA became the industry standard. It uses 7-pin data and a 15-pin power connector. The generation of SATA interfaces matters. SATA I can offer 150 MB/s or 1.5 Gbit/s. SATA II and SATA III can offer 300 MB/s (~3 Gbit/s) and 600 MB/s (~6 Gbit/s) respectively. SATA SSDs are available in three distinct form factors: 2.5-inch, 3.5-inch, and mSATA. mSATA: The compact size of mSATA makes it a perfect fit for notebooks, laptops, and tablets. SCSI/SAS: SCSI can connect multiple devices to a single host adapter. It finds its application in legacy server racks. SAS is the recent version of SCSI. SAS can offer transmission rates up to 12 Gbps or 24 Gbps. Such speed enhancements make it suitable for data centers and enterprise storage. PCIe: PCIe establishes a fast connection directly to the CPU and underlying storage device, bypassing traditional interfaces. This direct connection makes high throughput possible. NVMe, utilizing PCIe, delivers ultrafast data transfer and improves application response time. NVMe can offer up to 2 GB/s or 4GB/s per lane. For instance, a 4-lane interface can reduce the transfer time almost by 4 times.  NVMe vs SSD Standard SSDs are designed to interface through SATA, whereas NVMe SSDs leverage PCIe ports for enhanced performance. PCIe transmits data through lanes, with each lane capable of transmitting data in both directions simultaneously (full-duplex).  Performance An NVMe SSD can be 20 times faster than a normal SSD. The ‘e’ in Non-Volatile Memory Express refers to a PCIe bus.  Gen 4.0 NVMe SSD can deliver up to 7500 MB/s while Gen 5.0 NVMe SSD can double that speed reaching 14500 MB/s. Contrary to this, a SATA SSD can deliver up to 500 MB/s. Despite the significant data transmission rate gap, it barely affects personal computing. However, in cloud and hosting solutions, it matters. When a server handles 1k simultaneous requests, high-speed SSDs shine with their I/O efficiency, boosting performance and ensuring smooth service even during peak demand. Power NVMe SSDs can consume more power than SATA SSDs, typically around 4-8 watts under load and 1-3 watts under idle conditions, due to the power-intensive PCIe interface.  Cost Despite the slightly higher price of NVMe-enabled SSDs, this reflects their superior performance capabilities compared to SATA III SSDs. NVME Advantages over a Normal SSD Parallel Data Transfer: NVMe leverages multiple lanes to transfer the data, unlike serial communication protocol, where only one bit of data can be transferred at a time. This in turn, improves data bandwidth and throughput. Occupies Less Space: NVMe comes in M.2 and U.2 form factor.  M.2 drives are 22mm wide x 80mm long while the majority of standard SSD comes in a 2.5-inch form factor and has dimensions 69.85mm wide x 100mm long x 7mm (or 9.5mm) thick. With modern laptops and motherboards, you can connect two M.2 drives at the same time. Faster Speed: In the previous section, we already made a comparison of speeds offered by NVMe in contrast to normal SSD. What to Look for in an NVMe Storage It's important to note that NVMe SSDs can vary in performance, endurance, and functionalities, which can have a substantial impact based on the specific use case. PCIe Gen 3 vs Gen 4 vs Gen 5 PCIe has evolved, with newer generations offering faster data transfer speeds and improved performance.  PCIe Gen 3 provides a maximum data transfer rate of 8 Giga transfers per second (GT/s) per lane, while PCIe Gen 4 doubles this to 16 GT/s per lane. PCIe Gen 5, the latest generation, further increases this to 32 GT/s per lane. Gen 4 doubles the bandwidth offered by Gen 3. PCIe Gen 4 still holds the bet for consumer markets. Form Factor These drives come in different physical sizes. M.2: M.2 are small-size drives that fit directly into the motherboard, ideal for laptops and desktops. SATA SSD also comes with M.2 form factor. U.2: Used in server and enterprise environments, connects via PCIe slots and typically offers higher endurance. U.2 comes with a 2.5-inch form factor PCIe Add-in Cards (AIC): Larger and used primarily for server or high-performance applications, requiring a dedicated PCIe slot. Heat Sink Many high-performance drives come with built-in heatsinks to help dissipate heat. Some Gen 4 drives, like the Samsung 980 Pro or Western Digital Black SN850 come with a heatsink for improved performance. Endurance (TBW or DWPD) TBW (TerraByte Written) shows the total data that can be written to the drive over its lifespan, while DWPD (Drive Writes Per Day) indicates how often the entire drive can be written per day, typically over 5 years. Hosting Aspect Opting for NVMe-based SSDs instead of SATA SSDs in hosting and SEO can have a substantial effect on performance and user experience. A bad user experience can hurt SEO rankings and visitor engagement At Hostman, you can grab NVMe-enabled cloud servers for $2 per month. Latency In a hosting environment, low latency is critical for ensuring fast and efficient data access and transfer. NVMe SSDs offer lower latency than SATA SSDs. This means faster response times for your website, especially in situations with high traffic or complex database queries. Uptime A high-performance drive is designed to provide reliable and continuous access to data over an extended period. It is built with enterprise-grade components and features that enable it to withstand heavy workloads and maintain its performance levels even under high-stress conditions. The drive may include features such as power loss protection, which helps ensure that data is not lost or corrupted in the event of a sudden power outage. Here, at Hostman, we provide 99.98% uptime. User Experience SEO involves not only rankings but also user experience. Hosting on NVMe-enabled servers can speed up website load times, keeping visitors engaged and potentially reducing bounce rates. For e-commerce stores, this could lead to improved conversion rates. Conclusion If you're running a smaller website with minimal traffic or non-resource-heavy content, you might not need to migrate just yet.  For SEO, speed is a critical factor. Google considers page load time and Core Web Vitals as ranking factors, meaning faster websites are more likely to rank higher.  If you're seeing slow page loads, frequent throttling, or lag during peak traffic times with traditional SSD hosting, NVMe hosting might be just the upgrade you need to avoid losing users and boost your rankings. Similarly, if you run a high-traffic website, such as an e-commerce store, media platform, or blog with rich multimedia content, the performance boost from NVMe storage can be a game-changer.  Upgrading to NVMe web hosting can improve the website’s performance. With Non-Volatile Memory Express hosting, you get top-tier speed, reliability, and efficiency, far exceeding traditional SSD hosting. However, NVMe's power isn’t always necessary for every type of website.
14 February 2025 · 7 min to read

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