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DeepSeek Neural Network: Overview, Applications, and Examples

DeepSeek Neural Network: Overview, Applications, and Examples
Hostman Team
Technical writer
Infrastructure

In recent years, the development of large language models (LLMs) has become one of the key areas in the field of artificial intelligence. From the first experiments with recurrent and convolutional networks, researchers gradually moved to attention-based architectures—the Transformer, proposed in 2017 by Google’s team.

This breakthrough paved the way for scaling models capable of processing enormous volumes of textual data and generating coherent, meaningful answers to a wide variety of questions.

Against the backdrop of Western dominance, the work of Chinese research groups is attracting more and more attention. The country is investing significant resources into developing its own AI platforms, seeking technological independence and a competitive advantage in the global market.

One of the latest embodiments of these efforts is the DeepSeek neural network, which combines both the proven achievements of the Transformer architecture and its own innovative optimization methods.

In this article, we will look at how to use DeepSeek for content generation, information retrieval, and problem solving, as well as compare its characteristics with Western and domestic counterparts.

What is DeepSeek AI and How It Works

DeepSeek is a large language model (LLM) developed and launched by the Chinese hedge fund High-Flyer in January 2025.

At its core lies the transformer architecture, distinguished by a special attention mechanism that allows not only analyzing fragments of information in a text but also considering their interconnections.

In addition to the transformer foundation, DeepSeek employs several innovations that may be difficult for a non-technical person to grasp, but we can explain them simply:

  • Multi-Head Latent Attention (MLA). Instead of storing complete “maps” of word relationships, the model keeps simplified “sketches”—compact latent vectors. When the model needs details, it quickly “fills in” the necessary parts, as if printing out a fragment of a library plan on demand rather than carrying around the entire heavy blueprint. This greatly saves memory and speeds up processing, while retaining the ability to account for all important word relationships.

  • Mixture-of-Experts (MoE). Instead of a single universal “expert,” the model has a team of virtual specialists, each strong in its own field: linguistics, mathematics, programming, and many others. A special “router” evaluates the incoming task and engages only those experts best suited for solving it. Thanks to this, the model combines enormous computational power with efficient resource usage, activating only the necessary part of the “team” for each request.

Thus, DeepSeek combines time-tested transformer blocks with the innovative MLA and MoE mechanisms, ensuring high performance while relatively conserving resources.

Key Capabilities of DeepSeek: From Code to Conversations

The DeepSeek neural network can generate and process various types of content, from text and images to code and documents:

  • Dialogues. Builds natural human-like conversations with awareness of previous context. Supports many tones of communication, from formal to informal. Manages long-session memory up to 128,000 tokens of context.

  • Exploring specific topics. Instantly responds to queries across a wide range of fields: science, history, culture. Collects information from external sources to provide more accurate data.

  • Creative writing and content generation. Generates ideas and assists in writing articles, stories, scripts, slogans, marketing texts, narratives, poems, and other types of textual content.

  • Code generation and understanding. Performs any code-related tasks in the most popular programming languages: writing, autocompletion, refactoring, optimization, inspection, and vulnerability detection. Moreover, the model can generate unit tests and function documentation. Essentially, DeepSeek can do everything a human programmer can.
    Supported languages include: C, C++, C#, Rust, Go, D, Objective-C, JavaScript, TypeScript, HTML, CSS, XML, PHP, Ruby, Python, Perl, Lua, Bash/Shell/Zsh, PowerShell, Java, Kotlin, Swift, Dart, Haskell, OCaml, F#, Erlang, Elixir, Scala, Clojure, Lisp/Scheme, SQL, JSON, Markdown, and many more.

  • Document and website analysis. Summarizes the contents of documents, condenses information from external sites, extracts key ideas from large texts.

  • Translation from foreign languages. Translates text into dozens of languages while preserving original terminology and style.

In short, anything that can be done with textual data, DeepSeek can do. The only limits are the imagination of the user.

DeepSeek Chatbot: Three Key Modes

The DeepSeek chatbot offers three core modes, each optimized for different types of tasks and depth of processing:

  • Normal. Fast and lightweight answers to common questions. Has a limited context window but provides relatively high-quality responses with minimal delay. Suitable for direct factual queries: definitions, short explanations, notes.

  • DeepThink. In-depth analytical research with complex reasoning. Has an expanded context window but requires much more time to generate responses. Performs multi-step processing, breaking tasks into sub-tasks. Uses a “chain of thought” method, forming intermediate conclusions for the final answer. Suitable for logic-heavy queries: solving math problems, writing essays, detailed analysis of scientific articles, comprehensive strategic planning.

  • Search. Thorough analysis of external sources to provide up-to-date information. Automatically connects to the internet to search for current data, news, statistics. Uses specialized APIs and search engines, verifies sources, processes results, cross-checks facts, filters out irrelevant information. Suitable for finding fresh data and fact-checking.

Comparative Table of Modes

Mode

Response Speed

Context Size

Depth of Analysis

External Sources

Normal

high

limited

low

no

DeepThink

low

maximum

high

no

Search

medium

variable

medium

yes

Thus, if you just need a quick answer, use Normal mode. For deep reasoning and detailed justifications, choose DeepThink. To obtain the latest verified data from external sources, use Search.

How to Use DeepSeek: Interface, Access, and Launch

Although DeepSeek AI does not exist within a vast ecosystem (like Google’s Gemini), the neural network offers several ways to interact with it.

Option 1. Remote Application

In the simplest case, there are three ways to interact with the model hosted on DeepSeek’s remote servers:

All options provide dialogue with the model through a chatbot. In every case, the user interface includes a dialogue window, a message input field, file attachment buttons, and a panel with active sessions.

To access the model, you must either register with DeepSeek using an email address or log in through a Google account.

After that, a familiar chatbot page opens, where you can converse with the model and manage active sessions, just like with other LLMs such as ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, etc.

Option 2. Local Application

A more advanced way is to install DeepSeek on a local machine. This is possible thanks to its open-source code, unlike many other LLM services.

DeepSeek can run on Windows, macOS, and Linux. Minimum requirements: 8 GB of RAM and 10 GB of free disk space, plus Python 3.8 or higher.

When running locally, there are several interaction methods:

  • Method 1. Web interface. 

A graphical UI that allows querying, viewing logs, connecting external storage, monitoring metrics, analyzing performance, and more. The local interface differs from the public one by offering advanced model management tools. It is primarily intended for internal use by individual users or companies and contains parameters that only specialists would understand.

  • Method 2. Console terminal.

  • Method 3. REST API.

A full REST interface for sending HTTP requests to the locally installed model. Example with curl:

curl -X GET 'http://localhost:8080/api/search?index=my_index&query=search' \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer UNIQUE_TOKEN"

This universal method does not depend on the client type, whether a console terminal or a complex C++ program.

  • Method 4. Python script.

DeepSeek provides a wrapper fully compatible with the OpenAI API, allowing use of the standard OpenAI client with only a URL change. Example:

from openai import OpenAI

client = OpenAI(api_key="UNIQUE_TOKEN", base_url="http://localhost:8080")

response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="deepseek-chat",
    messages=[
        {"role": "system", "content": "You are a helpful assistant, DeepSeek."},
        {"role": "user", "content": "Hello!"},
    ],
    stream=False
)

print(response.choices[0].message.content)
  • Method 5. JavaScript script.

Similarly, you can interact with DeepSeek using the OpenAI client in JavaScript. Example (Node.js):

import OpenAI from "openai";

const openai = new OpenAI({
  baseURL: 'http://localhost:8080',
  apiKey: 'UNIQUE_TOKEN'
});

async function main() {
  const completion = await openai.chat.completions.create({
    messages: [{ role: "system", content: "You are a helpful assistant." }],
    model: "deepseek-chat",
  });

  console.log(completion.choices[0].message.content);
}

main();

Notably, it is precisely the open-source nature that made DeepSeek popular and competitive in the LLM market.

However, the local version is intended for advanced users with deep ML knowledge and specific tasks requiring local deployment.

Detailed information on local installation is available in the official DeepSeek GitHub repository and the HuggingFace page.

Specialized DeepSeek Models

In addition to the core model, several specialized versions exist:

  • DeepSeek Coder. For working with code (analysis and editing) in multiple programming languages. Available on GitHub.

  • DeepSeek Math. For solving and explaining complex mathematical problems, performing symbolic computations, and constructing formal proofs. Available on GitHub.

  • DeepSeek Prover. For automated theorem proving. Available on HuggingFace.

  • DeepSeek VL. A multimodal model for analyzing and generating both text and images. Available on GitHub.

DeepSeek Pricing Plans

The DeepSeek service provides completely free access to its core models (DeepSeek-V and DeepSeek-R) through the website and mobile app. At present, there are no limits on the number of queries in the free version.

The only paid feature in DeepSeek is the API, intended for application developers. In other words, if someone wants to integrate DeepSeek into their own app, they must pay for API usage, which processes the requests.

Payment in DeepSeek follows a pay-as-you-go model with no monthly subscriptions. This means that the user only pays for the actual API usage, measured in tokens.

There are no minimum payments. The user simply tops up their balance and spends it as queries are made. The balance does not expire over time.

You can find more details on API pricing in the official DeepSeek documentation.

 

DeepSeek-V

DeepSeek-R

1 million tokens (input)

$0.27

$0.55

1 million tokens (output)

$1.10

$2.19

To control expenses, manage API tokens, and view usage statistics, DeepSeek has DeepSeek Platform.

It also provides links to documentation and reference materials that describe the basics of using the model, integrating with external applications, and pricing specifics.

Image1

Prompts for DeepSeek: How to Give Commands and Get Results

Although prompts for DeepSeek can vary, there are several general principles to follow when writing them.

Clarity and Specificity

It’s important to clearly describe both the details of the request and the desired format of the answer. Avoid vague wording, and provide context if needed.

For example, you can specify the target audience and the approximate output format:

I’m preparing a school report on history. I need a list of the 5 most important discoveries of the early 20th century, with a short explanation of each in the format of a headline plus a few paragraphs of text.

For such queries, you can use Search mode. In this case, DeepSeek will reinforce the response with information from external sources and perform better fact-checking.

Image5

In some cases, you can describe the format of the response in more detail:

I need a list of the 15 most important discoveries of the early 20th century in the form of a table with the following columns:

  • Name of the discovery (column name: “Name”)
  • Authors of the discovery (column name: “Authors”)
  • Date of the discovery (column name: “Date”)
  • Short description of the discovery (column name: “Description”)
  • Hyperlinks to supporting publications (column name: “Sources”, data in the format [1], [2], [3], ... with clickable links, but no more than 5 sources)

The table rows must be sorted by date in descending order.

The more detail you provide, the better. When writing prompts for DeepSeek, it’s worth taking time to carefully consider what you need and in what format.

Image2

You can also use text descriptions to set filters: date ranges, geography, language of sources, readability level, and many other parameters.

For example:

I need a table of the 15 most important discoveries of the early 20th century that were made in the UK between 1910 and 1980. The table rows must be sorted by date in descending order, and the columns should be:

  • Name (column: “Name”)
  • Authors (column: “Authors”)
  • Date (column: “Date”)

As you can see, filtering in DeepSeek is done through natural language text rather than the sliders or filters familiar from internet catalogs or UGC platforms.

Image4

Clear Formalization

In addition to detailed text descriptions, you can formalize requests with a structured format, including special symbols:

[Task]: Create a table of the 10 most important discoveries of the early 20th century.  

[Constraints]:  

- Territory: United Kingdom  

- Period: 1910–1980  

[Structure]:  

- Columns: number, name, author, date (day, month, year)  

[Context]: For history students specializing in British history.  

This creates a clear request structure:

  • Task. What needs to be done.
  • Context. Where to search and for whom.
  • Constraints. What to include or exclude.

You can, of course, customize the structure depending on the task.

Image7

Advanced Techniques

LLM-based neural networks are extremely flexible. They support more complex dialogue patterns and information-processing methods.

To get more relevant answers, you can use advanced prompting techniques, often mirroring real human dialogue.

Option 1. Role-based prompts

Explicitly asking the model to take on a role with specific qualities can add depth and define the style of the answer.

Imagine you are an expert in English history with more than 30 years of experience studying the nuances of the UK’s scientific context. In your opinion, what 10 discoveries in the UK can be considered the most important of the 20th century? Please provide a brief description of each, just a couple of words.

This style of prompt works best with DeepThink mode, which helps the model immerse itself more deeply in the role and context.

Image6

Option 2. Query chains

In most cases, obtaining a comprehensive response requires multiple queries—initial exploratory prompts followed by more specific ones.

For example:

  • First, a clarifying question: What sources exist on scientific discoveries in the UK during the 20th century?
  • Then, the main request: Based on these sources, prepare a concise description of 5 scientific discoveries. Format: title + a couple of explanatory paragraphs.

The best results often come from combining DeepThink and Search modes. DeepSeek will both gather external information and process it in depth to synthesize a thorough answer.

Image3

DeepSeek vs. Other AI Models: Comparison and Conclusions

Unique Features of DeepSeek

  • Free access. The two main models (one for simpler tasks, one for complex tasks) are available completely free of charge. Only the developer API is paid, and the pricing is usage-based, not subscription-based.
  • No limits. All models are not only free but also unlimited, i.e., users can generate as much content as they want. While generation speed may not be the fastest, unlimited free use outweighs most drawbacks.
  • Open source. Industry experts, AI enthusiasts, and ordinary users can access DeepSeek’s source code on GitHub and HuggingFace.
  • Global availability. The DeepSeek website is accessible in most countries.

Comparison with Other LLM Services

Platform

Generation Speed

Free Access

Pricing Model

Content Types

Developer

Country

Launch Year

DeepSeek

High

Full

Pay-as-you-go

Text

High-Flyer

China

2025

ChatGPT

High

Limited

Subscription

Text, images

OpenAI

USA

2022

Gemini

High

Limited

Subscription

Text, images, video

Google

USA

2023

Claude

Medium

Limited

Subscription

Text

Anthropic

USA

2023

Grok

Medium

Limited

Subscription

Text, images

xAI

USA

2023

Meta AI

Medium

Limited

Subscription / Usage

Text, images

Meta (banned in RF)

USA

2023

Qwen

Medium

Full

Pay-as-you-go

Text

Alibaba

China

2024

Mistral

High

Limited

Subscription

Text

Mistral AI

France

2023

Reka

High

Full

Pay-as-you-go

Text

Reka AI

USA

2024

ChatGLM

Medium

Limited

Pay-as-you-go

Text

Zhipu AI

China

2023

Conclusion

On one hand, DeepSeek is a fully free service, available without volume or geographic restrictions. On the other hand, it is a powerful and fast model, on par with many industry leaders.

The real standout, however, is its open-source code. Anyone can download it from the official repository and run it locally.

These features distinguish DeepSeek from competitors, making it not only attractive for content generation but also highly appealing for third-party developers seeking integration into their own applications.

That’s why when ChatGPT or Gemini fall short, it’s worth trying DeepSeek. It just might find the right answers faster and more accurately.

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Case: An AI startup trains a multimodal model on Tesla H200, reducing development time by 60%. NVIDIA vs AMD for AI NVIDIA remains the leader in ML, but AMD is actively catching up. The choice depends on budget, tasks, and ecosystem. Here's a comparison: Parameter NVIDIA AMD Ecosystem CUDA, wide support ROCm, limited VRAM 12-141 GB 16-64 GB Price More expensive Cheaper Tensor Cores Yes No Community Large Developing Why NVIDIA is the Choice of Most Developers NVIDIA dominates thanks to a wide range of advantages that make it preferred for developers and businesses worldwide: CUDA: This platform has become the de facto standard for ML, providing perfect compatibility with frameworks such as PyTorch, TensorFlow, and JAX. Libraries optimized for CUDA allow accelerating development and reducing costs for code adaptation. Tensor Cores: Specialized blocks that accelerate low-precision operations (FP16/FP32) provide a significant advantage when training modern neural networks, especially in tasks requiring high performance, such as generative AI. Energy Efficiency: The new Hopper architecture demonstrates outstanding performance-to-power consumption ratio, which reduces operating costs for data centers and companies striving for sustainable development. Community Support: A huge ecosystem of developers, documentation, and ready-made solutions simplifies the implementation of NVIDIA GPUs in projects, reducing time for training and debugging. Case: A retail company uses Tesla A100 for demand forecasting, reducing costs by 25% and improving forecast accuracy thanks to broad tool support and platform stability. AMD GPU Capabilities in 2025 AMD offers an alternative that attracts attention thanks to competitive characteristics and affordable cost: ROCm: The platform is actively developing, providing improved support for PyTorch and TensorFlow. In 2025, ROCm becomes more stable, although it still lags behind CUDA in speed and universality. Price: AMD GPUs, such as MI300X (approximately $20,000), are the best budget GPUs for AI, as they are significantly cheaper than NVIDIA counterparts. It makes them attractive for universities, research centers, and companies with limited budgets. Energy Efficiency: New AMD architectures demonstrate improvements in energy consumption, making them competitive in the long term. HPC Support: AMD cards are successfully used in high-performance computing, such as climate modeling, which expands their application beyond traditional ML. Case: A university uses MI300X for research, saving 30% of budget and supporting complex simulations thanks to high memory density. However, the limited ROCm ecosystem and smaller developer community may slow adoption and require additional optimization efforts. Local GPU vs Cloud Solutions Parameter Local GPU Cloud Control Full Limited Initial Costs High Low Scalability Limited High When to Use Local Hardware Local GPUs are suitable for permanent tasks where autonomy and full control over equipment are important. For example, the R&D department of a large company can use Tesla A6000 for long-term research, paying for itself within a year thanks to stable performance. Local graphics cards are especially useful if the business plans intensive daily GPU use, as this eliminates additional rental costs and allows optimizing infrastructure for specific needs. Case: A game development company trains models on local A6000s, avoiding cloud dependency. Additionally, local solutions allow configuring cooling and power consumption for specific conditions, which is important for data centers and server rooms with limited resources. However, this requires significant initial investments and regular maintenance, which may not be justified for small projects or periodic tasks. Pros and Cons of Cloud Solutions Cloud solutions for GPU usage are becoming a popular choice thanks to their flexibility and accessibility, especially for businesses seeking to optimize machine learning costs. Let's examine the key advantages and limitations to consider when choosing this approach. Pros: Scalability: You can add GPUs as tasks grow, which is ideal for companies with variable workloads. This allows quick adaptation to new projects without needing to purchase new equipment. Flexibility: Paying only for actual usage reduces financial risks, especially for startups or companies testing new AI solutions. For example, you can rent Tesla A100 for experiments without spending $20,000 on purchase. Access to Top GPUs: Cloud providers give access to cutting-edge models that aren't available for purchase in small volumes or require complex installation. Updates and Support: Cloud providers regularly update equipment and drivers, relieving businesses of the need to independently monitor technical condition. Cons: Internet Dependency: Stable connection is critical, and any interruptions can stop model training, which is unacceptable for projects with tight deadlines. Long-term Costs: With intensive use, rental can cost more than purchasing local GPU. Case: A startup tests models on a cloud server with Tesla H100, saving $30,000 on GPU purchase and quickly adapting to project changes. However, for long-term tasks, they plan to transition to local A6000s to reduce costs. Conclusion Choosing a graphics card for neural networks and ML in 2025 depends on your tasks. Beginners should choose NVIDIA RTX 4060 Ti, which will handle educational projects and basic models. For the mid-segment, A5000 is a good solution, especially if you work with generative models and more complex tasks. For business and large research, Tesla A6000 remains the optimal choice, providing high video memory volume and performance. NVIDIA provides the best graphic cards for AI and maintains leadership thanks to the CUDA ecosystem and specialized Tensor Cores. However, AMD is gradually strengthening its position, offering ROCm support and more affordable solutions, making the GPU market for ML and AI increasingly competitive.
30 September 2025 · 12 min to read
Infrastructure

SOLID Principles and Their Role in Software Development

SOLID is an acronym for five object-oriented programming principles for creating understandable, scalable, and maintainable code.  S: Single Responsibility Principle.  O:Open/Closed Principle.  L: Liskov Substitution Principle.  I: Interface Segregation Principle. D: Dependency Inversion Principle. In this article, we will understand what SOLID is and what each of its five principles states. All shown code examples were executed by Python interpreter version 3.10.12 on a Hostman cloud server running Ubuntu 22.04 operating system. Single Responsibility Principle (SRP) SRP (Single Responsibility Principle) is the single responsibility principle, which states that each individual class should specialize in solving only one narrow task. In other words, a class is responsible for only one application component, implementing its logic. Essentially, this is a form of "division of labor" at the program code level. In house construction, a foreman manages the team, a lumberjack cuts trees, a loader carries logs, a painter paints walls, a plumber lays pipes, a designer creates the interior, etc. Everyone is busy with their own work and works only within their competencies. In SRP, everything is exactly the same. For example, RequestHandler processes HTTP requests, FileStorage manages local files, Logger records information, and AuthManager checks access rights. As they say, "flies separately, cutlets separately." If a class has several responsibilities, they need to be separated. Naturally, SRP directly affects code cohesion and coupling. Both properties are similar in sound but differ in meaning: Cohesion: A positive characteristic meaning logical integrity of classes relative to each other. The higher the cohesion, the narrower the class functionality. Coupling: A negative characteristic meaning logical dependency of classes on each other. The higher the coupling, the more strongly the functionality of one class is intertwined with the functionality of another class. SRP strives to increase cohesion but decrease coupling of classes. Each class solves its narrow task, remaining as independent as possible from the external environment (other classes). However, all classes can (and should) still interact with each other through interfaces. Example of SRP Violation An object of a class capable of performing many diverse functions is sometimes called a god object, i.e., an instance of a class that takes on too many responsibilities, performing many logically unrelated functions, for example, business logic management, data storage, database work, sending notifications, etc. Example code in Python where SRP is violated: # implementation of god object class class DataProcessorGod: # data loading method def load(self, file_path): with open(file_path, 'r') as file: return file.readlines() # data processing method def transform(self, data): return [line.strip().upper() for line in data] # data saving method def save(self, file_path, data): with open(file_path, 'w') as file: file.writelines("\n".join(data)) # creating a god object justGod = DataProcessorGod() # data processing data = justGod.load("input.txt") processed_data = justGod.transform(data) justGod.save("output.txt", processed_data) The functionality of the program from this example can be divided into two types: File operations Data transformation Accordingly, to create a more optimal level of abstractions that allows easy scaling of the program in the future, it is necessary to allocate each functionality its own separate class. Example of SRP Application The shown program is best represented as two specialized classes that don't know about each other: DataManager: For file operations.  DataTransformer: For data transformation. Example code in Python where SRP is used: class DataManager: def load(self, file_path): with open(file_path, 'r') as file: return file.readlines() def save(self, file_path, data): with open(file_path, 'w') as file: file.writelines("\n".join(data)) class DataTransformer: def transform(self, data): return [line.strip().upper() for line in data.text] # creating specialized objects manager = DataManager() transformer = DataTransformer() # data processing data = manager.load("input.txt") processed_data = transformer.transform(data) manager.save("output.txt", processed_data) In this case, DataManager and DataTransformer interact with each other using strings that are passed as arguments to their methods. In a more complex implementation, there could exist an additional Data class used for transferring data between different program components: class Data: def __init__(self): self.text = "" class DataManager: def load(self, file_path, data): with open(file_path, 'r') as file: data.text = file.readlines() def save(self, file_path, data): with open(file_path, 'w') as file: file.writelines("\n".join(data.text)) class DataTransformer: def transform(self, data): data.text = [line.strip().upper() for line in data.text] # creating specialized objects manager = DataManager() transformer = DataTransformer() # data processing data = Data() manager.load("input.txt", data) transformer.transform(data) manager.save("output.txt", data) In this case, low-level data operations are wrapped in user classes. Such an implementation is easy to scale. For example, you can add many methods for working with files (DataManager) and data (DataTransformer), as well as complicate the internal representation of stored information (Data). SRP Advantages Undoubtedly, SRP simplifies application maintenance, makes code readable, and reduces dependency between program parts: Increased scalability: Adding new functions to the program doesn't confuse its logic. A class solving only one task is easier to change without risk of breaking other parts of the system. Reusability: Logically coherent components implementing program logic can be reused to create new behavior. Testing simplification: Classes with one responsibility are easier to cover with unit tests, as they don't contain unnecessary logic inside. Improved readability: Logically related functions wrapped in one class look more understandable. They are easier to understand, make changes to, and find errors in. Collaborative development: Logically separated code can be written by several programmers at once. In this case, each works on a separate component. In other words, a class should be responsible for only one task. If several responsibilities are concentrated in a class, it's more difficult to maintain without side effects for the entire program. Open/Closed Principle (OCP) OCP (Open/Closed Principle) is the open/closed principle, which states that code should be open for extension but closed for modification. In other words, program behavior modification is carried out only by adding new components. New functionality is layered on top of the old. In practice, OCP is implemented through inheritance, interfaces, abstractions, and polymorphism. Instead of changing existing code, new classes and functions are added. For example, instead of implementing a single class that processes all HTTP requests (RequestHandler), you can create one connection manager class (HTTPManager) and several classes for processing different HTTP request methods: RequestGet, RequestPost, RequestDelete. At the same time, request processing classes inherit from the base handler class, Request. Accordingly, implementing new request processing methods will require not modifying already existing classes, but adding new ones. For example, RequestHead, RequestPut, RequestConnect, RequestOptions, RequestTrace, RequestPatch. Example of OCP Violation Without OCP, any change in program operation logic (its behavior) will require modification of its components. Example code in Python where OCP is violated: # single request processing class class RequestHandler: def handle_request(self, method): if method == "GET": return "Processing GET request" elif method == "POST": return "Processing POST request" elif method == "DELETE": return "Processing DELETE request" elif method == "PUT": return "Processing PUT request" else: return "Method not supported" # request processing handler = RequestHandler() print(handler.handle_request("GET")) # Processing GET request print(handler.handle_request("POST")) # Processing POST request print(handler.handle_request("PATCH")) # Method not supported Such implementation violates OCP. When adding new methods, you'll have to modify the RequestHandler class, adding new elif processing conditions. The more complex a program with such architecture becomes, the harder it will be to maintain and scale. Example of OCP Application The request handler from the example above can be divided into several classes in such a way that subsequent program behavior changes don't require modification of already created classes. Abstract example code in Python where OCP is used: from abc import ABC, abstractmethod # base request handler class class Request(ABC): @abstractmethod def handle(self): pass # classes for processing different HTTP methods class RequestGet(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing GET request" class RequestPost(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing POST request" class RequestDelete(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing DELETE request" class RequestHead(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing HEAD request" class RequestPut(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing PUT request" class RequestConnect(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing CONNECT request" class RequestOptions(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing OPTIONS request" class RequestTrace(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing TRACE request" class RequestPatch(Request): def handle(self): return "Processing PATCH request" # connection manager class class HTTPManager: def __init__(self): self.handlers = {} def register_handler(self, method: str, handler: Request): self.handlers[method.upper()] = handler def handle_request(self, method: str): handler = self.handlers.get(method.upper()) if handler: return handler.handle() return "Method not supported" # registering handlers in the manager http_manager = HTTPManager() http_manager.register_handler("GET", RequestGet()) http_manager.register_handler("POST", RequestPost()) http_manager.register_handler("DELETE", RequestDelete()) http_manager.register_handler("PUT", RequestPut()) # request processing print(http_manager.handle_request("GET")) print(http_manager.handle_request("POST")) print(http_manager.handle_request("PUT")) print(http_manager.handle_request("TRACE")) In this case, the base Request class is implemented using ABC and @abstractmethod: ABC (Abstract Base Class): This is a base class in Python from which you cannot create an instance directly. It is needed exclusively for defining subclasses. @abstractmethod: A decorator designating a method as abstract. That is, each subclass must implement this method, otherwise creating its instance will be impossible. Despite the fact that the program code became longer and more complex, its maintenance was significantly simplified. The handler implementation now looks more structured and understandable. OCP Advantages Following OCP endows the application development process with some advantages: Clear extensibility: Program logic can be easily supplemented with new functionality. At the same time, already implemented components remain unchanged. Error reduction: Adding new components is safer than changing already existing ones. The risk of breaking an already working program is small, and errors after additions probably come from new components. Actually, OCP can be compared with SRP in terms of ability to isolate the implementation of individual classes from each other. The difference is only that SRP works horizontally, and OCP vertically. For example, in the case of SRP, the Request class is logically separated from the Handler class horizontally. This is SRP. At the same time, the RequestGet and RequestPost classes, which specify the request method, are logically separated from the Request class vertically, although they are its inheritors. This is OCP. All three classes (Request, RequestGet, RequestPost) are fully subjective and autonomous; they can be used separately. Just like Handler. Although, of course, this is a matter of theoretical interpretations. Thus, thanks to OCP, you can create new program components based on old ones, leaving both completely independent entities. Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP) LSP (Liskov Substitution Principle) is the Liskov substitution principle, which states that objects in a program should be replaceable by their inheritors without changing program correctness. In other words, inheritor classes should completely preserve the behavior of their parents. Barbara Liskov is an American computer scientist specializing in data abstractions. For example, there is a Vehicle class. Car and Helicopter classes inherit from it. Tesla inherits from Car, and Apache from Helicopter. Thus, each subsequent class (inheritor) adds new properties to the previous one (parent). Vehicles can start and turn off engines. Cars are capable of driving. Helicopters, flying. At the same time, the Tesla car model is capable of using autopilot, and Apache, radio broadcasting. This creates a kind of hierarchy of abilities: Vehicles start and turn off engines. Cars start and turn off engines, and, as a consequence, drive. Tesla starts and turns off the engine, drives, and uses autopilot. Helicopters start and turn off engines, and, as a consequence, fly. Apache starts and turns off engine, flies, and radio broadcasts. The more specific the vehicle class, the more abilities it possesses. But basic abilities are also preserved. Example of LSP Violation Example code in Python where LSP is violated: class Vehicle: def __init__(self): self.x = 0 self.y = 0 self.z = 0 self.engine = False def on(self): if not self.engine: self.engine = True return "Engine started" else: return "Engine already started" def off(self): if self.engine: self.engine = False return "Engine turned off" else: return "Engine already turned off" def move(self): if self.engine: self.x += 10 self.y += 10 self.z += 10 return "Vehicle moved" else: return "Engine not started" # various vehicle classes class Car(Vehicle): def move(self): if self.engine: self.x += 1 self.y += 1 return "Car drove" else: return "Engine not started" class Helicopter(Vehicle): def move(self): if self.engine: self.x += 1 self.y += 1 self.z += 1 return "Helicopter flew" else: return "Engine not started" def radio(self): return "Buzz...buzz...buzz..." In this case, the parent Vehicle class has a move() method denoting vehicle movement. Inheriting classes override the basic Vehicle behavior, setting their own movement method. Example of LSP Application Following LSP, it's logical to assume that Car and Helicopter should preserve movement ability, adding unique types of movement on their own: driving and flying. Example code in Python where LSP is used: # base vehicle class class Vehicle: def __init__(self): self.x = 0 self.y = 0 self.z = 0 self.engine = False def on(self): if not self.engine: self.engine = True return "Engine started" else: return "Engine already started" def off(self): if self.engine: self.engine = False return "Engine turned off" else: return "Engine already turned off" def move(self): if self.engine: self.x += 10 self.y += 10 self.z += 10 return "Vehicle moved" else: return "Engine not started" # various vehicle classes class Car(Vehicle): def ride(self): if self.engine: self.x += 1 self.y += 1 return "Car drove" else: return "Engine not started" class Helicopter(Vehicle): def fly(self): if self.engine: self.x += 1 self.y += 1 self.z += 1 return "Helicopter flew" else: return "Engine not started" def radio(self): return "Buzz...buzz...buzz..." class Tesla(Car): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.autopilot = False def switch(self): if self.autopilot: self.autopilot = False return "Autopilot turned off" else: self.autopilot = True return "Autopilot turned on" class Apache(Helicopter): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.frequency = 103.4 def radio(self): if self.frequency != 0: return "Buzz...buzz...Copy, how do you hear? [" + str(self.frequency) + " GHz]" else: return "Seems like the radio isn't working..." In this case, Car and Helicopter, just like Tesla and Apache derived from them, will preserve the original Vehicle behavior. Each inheritor adds new behavior to the parent class but preserves its own. LSP Advantages Code following LSP works with parent classes the same way as with their inheritors. This way you can implement interfaces capable of interacting with objects of different types but with common properties. Interface Segregation Principle (ISP) ISP (Interface Segregation Principle) is the interface segregation principle, which states that program classes should not depend on methods they don't use. This means that each class should contain only the methods it needs. It should not "drag" unnecessary "baggage" with it. Therefore, instead of one large interface, it's better to create several small specialized interfaces. In many ways, ISP has features of SRP and LSP, but differs from them. Example of ISP Violation Example code in Python that ignores ISP: # base vehicle class Vehicle: def __init__(self): self.hp = 100 self.power = 0 self.wheels = 0 self.frequency = 103.4 def ride(self): if self.power > 0 and self.wheels > 0: return "Driving" else: return "Standing" # vehicles class Car(Vehicle): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 80 self.power = 250 self.wheels = 4 class Bike(Vehicle): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 60 self.power = 150 self.wheels = 2 class Helicopter(Vehicle): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 120 self.power = 800 def fly(self): if self.power > 0 and self.propellers > 0: return "Flying" else: return "Standing" def radio(self): if self.frequency != 0: return "Buzz...buzz...Copy, how do you hear? [" + str(self.frequency) + " GHz]" else: return "Seems like the radio isn't working..." # creating vehicles bmw = Car() ducati = Bike() apache = Helicopter() # operating vehicles print(bmw.ride()) # OUTPUT: Driving print(ducati.ride()) # OUTPUT: Driving print(apache.ride()) # OUTPUT: Standing (redundant method) print(apache.radio()) # OUTPUT: Buzz...buzz...Copy, how do you hear? [103.4 GHz] In this case, the base vehicle class implements properties and methods that are redundant for some of its inheritors. Example of ISP Application Example code in Python that follows ISP: # simple vehicle components class Body: def __init__(self): self.hp = 100 class Engine: def __init__(self): self.power = 0 class Radio: def __init__(self): self.frequency = 103.4 def communicate(self): if self.frequency != 0: return "Buzz...buzz...Copy, how do you hear? [" + str(self.frequency) + " GHz]" else: return "Seems like the radio isn't working..." # complex vehicle components class Suspension(Engine): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.wheels = 0 def ride(self): if self.power > 0 and self.wheels > 0: return "Driving" else: return "Standing" class Frame(Engine): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.propellers = 0 def fly(self): if self.power > 0 and self.propellers > 0: return "Flying" else: return "Standing" # vehicles class Car(Body, Suspension): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 80 self.power = 250 self.wheels = 4 class Bike(Body, Suspension): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 60 self.power = 150 self.wheels = 2 class Helicopter(Body, Frame, Radio): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 120 self.power = 800 self.propellers = 2 self.frequency = 107.6 class Plane(Body, Frame): def __init__(self): super().__init__() self.hp = 200 self.power = 1200 self.propellers = 4 # creating vehicles bmw = Car() ducati = Bike() apache = Helicopter() boeing = Plane() # operating vehicles print(bmw.ride()) # OUTPUT: Driving print(ducati.ride()) # OUTPUT: Driving print(apache.fly()) # OUTPUT: Flying print(apache.communicate()) # OUTPUT: Buzz...buzz...Copy, how do you hear? [107.6 GHz] print(boeing.fly()) # OUTPUT: Flying Thus, all vehicles represent a set of components with their own properties and methods. No finished vehicle class carries an unnecessary element or capability "on board." ISP Advantages Thanks to ISP, classes contain only the necessary variables and methods. Moreover, dividing large interfaces into small ones allows specializing logic in the spirit of SRP. This way interfaces are built from small blocks, like a constructor, each of which implements only its zone of responsibility. Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP) DIP (Dependency Inversion Principle) is the dependency inversion principle, which states that upper-level components should not depend on lower-level components. In other words, abstractions should not depend on details. Details should depend on abstractions. Such architecture is achieved through common interfaces that hide the implementation of underlying objects. Example of DIP Violation Example code in Python that doesn't follow DIP: # projector class Light(): def __init__(self, wavelength): self.wavelength = wavelength def use(self): return "Lighting [" + str(self.wavelength) + " nm]" # helicopter class Helicopter: def __init__(self, color="white"): if color == "white": self.light = Light(600) elif color == "blue": self.light = Light(450) elif color == "red": self.light = Light(650) def project(self): return self.light.use() # creating vehicles helicopterWhite = Helicopter("white") helicopterRed = Helicopter("red") # operating vehicles print(helicopterWhite.project()) # OUTPUT: Lighting [600 nm] print(helicopterRed.project()) # OUTPUT: Lighting [650 nm] In this case, the Helicopter implementation depends on the Light implementation. The helicopter must consider the projector configuration principle, passing certain parameters to its object. Moreover, the script similarly configures the Helicopter using a boolean variable. If the projector or helicopter implementation changes, the configuration parameters may stop working, which will require modification of upper-level object classes. Example of DIP Application The projector implementation should be completely isolated from the helicopter implementation. Vertical interaction between both entities should be performed through a special interface. Example code in Python that considers DIP: from abc import ABC, abstractmethod # base projector class class Light(ABC): @abstractmethod def use(self): pass # white projector class NormalLight(Light): def use(self): return "Lighting with bright white light" # red projector class SpecialLight(Light): def use(self): return "Lighting with dim red light" # helicopter class Helicopter: def __init__(self, light): self.light = light def project(self): return self.light.use() # creating vehicles helicopterWhite = Helicopter(NormalLight()) helicopterRed = Helicopter(SpecialLight()) # operating vehicles print(helicopterWhite.project()) # OUTPUT: Lighting with bright white light print(helicopterRed.project()) # OUTPUT: Lighting with dim red light In such architecture, the implementation of a specific projector, whether NormalLight or SpecialLight, doesn't affect the Helicopter device. On the contrary, the Helicopter class sets requirements for the presence of certain methods in the Light class and its inheritors. DIP Advantages Following DIP reduces program coupling: upper-level code doesn't depend on implementation details, which simplifies component modification or replacement. Thanks to active use of interfaces, new implementations (inherited from base classes) can be added to the program, which can be used with existing components. In this, DIP overlaps with LSP. In addition to this, during testing, instead of real lower-level dependencies, empty stubs can be substituted that simulate the functions of real components. For example, instead of making a request to a remote server, you can simulate delay using a function like time.sleep(). And in general, DIP significantly increases program modularity, vertically encapsulating component logic. Practical Application of SOLID SOLID principles help write flexible, maintainable, and scalable code. They are especially relevant when developing backends for high-load applications, working with microservice architecture, and using object-oriented programming. Essentially, SOLID is aimed at localization (increasing cohesion) and encapsulation (decreasing coupling) of application component logic both horizontally and vertically. Whatever syntactic constructions a language possesses (perhaps it weakly supports OOP), it allows following SOLID principles to one degree or another. How SOLID Helps in Real Projects As a rule, each iteration of a software product either adds new behavior or changes existing behavior, thereby increasing system complexity. However, complexity growth often leads to disorder. Therefore, SOLID principles set certain architectural frameworks within which a project remains understandable and structured. SOLID doesn't allow chaos to grow. In real projects, SOLID performs several important functions: Facilitates making changes Divides complex systems into simple subsystems Reduces component dependency on each other Facilitates testing Reduces errors and makes code predictable Essentially, SOLID is a generalized set of rules based on which software abstractions and interactions between different application components are formed. SOLID and Architectural Patterns SOLID principles and architectural patterns are two different but interconnected levels of software design. SOLID principles exist at a lower implementation level, while architectural patterns exist at a higher level. That is, SOLID can be applied within any architectural pattern, whether MVC, MVVM, Layered Architecture, Hexagonal Architecture. For example, in a web application built on MVC, one controller can be responsible for processing HTTP requests, and another for executing business logic. Thus, the implementation will follow SRP. Moreover, within MVC, all dependencies can be passed through interfaces rather than created inside classes. This, in turn, will be following DIP. SOLID and Code Testability The main advantage of SOLID is increasing code modularity. Modularity is an extremely useful property for unit testing. After all, classes performing only one task are easier to test than classes consisting of logical "hodgepodge." To some extent, testing itself begins to follow SRP, performing multiple small and specialized tests instead of one scattered test. Moreover, thanks to OCP, adding new functionality doesn't break existing tests, but leaves them still relevant, despite the fact that the overall program behavior may have changed. Actually, tests can be considered a kind of program snapshot. Exclusively in the sense that they frame application logic and test its implementation. Therefore, there's nothing surprising in the fact that tests follow the same principles and architectural patterns as the application itself. Criticism and Limitations of SOLID Excessive adherence to SOLID can lead to fragmented code with many small classes and interfaces. In small projects, strict separations may be excessive. When SOLID May Be Excessive SOLID principles are relevant in any project. Following them is good practice. However, complex SOLID abstractions and interfaces may be excessive for simple projects. On the contrary, in complex projects, SOLID can simplify code understanding and help scale implementation. In other words, if a project is small, fragmenting code into many classes and interfaces is unnecessary. For example, dividing logic into many classes in a simple Telegram bot will only complicate maintenance. The same applies to code for one-time use (for example, one-time task automation). Strict adherence to SOLID in this case will be a waste of time. It must be understood that SOLID is not a dogma, but a tool. It should be applied where it's necessary to improve code quality, not complicate it unnecessarily. Sometimes it's easier to write simple and monolithic code than fragmented and overcomplicated code. Alternative Design Approaches Besides SOLID, there are other principles, approaches, and software design patterns that can be used both separately and as a supplement to SOLID: GRASP (General Responsibility Assignment Software Patterns): A set of responsibility distribution patterns describing class interactions with each other. YAGNI (You Ain't Gonna Need It): The principle of refusing excessive functionality that is not immediately needed. KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid): A programming principle declaring simplicity as the main value of software. DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself): A software development principle minimizing code duplication. CQS (Command-Query Separation): A design pattern dividing operations into two categories: commands that change system state and queries that get data from the system. DDD (Domain-Driven Design): A software development approach structuring code around the enterprise domain. Nevertheless, no matter how many approaches there are, the main thing is to apply them thoughtfully, not blindly follow them. SOLID is a useful tool, but it needs to be applied consciously.
29 September 2025 · 25 min to read

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