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How to Create a Text File in Linux Terminal

How to Create a Text File in Linux Terminal
JC Brian Refugia
Technical writer
Linux
01.06.2025
Reading time: 8 min

In Linux, you can access and edit text files using a text editor that is designed to work with plain text. These files are not specifically coded or formatted.

Linux allows one to create a file in numerous ways. The fastest is, probably, Linux Command Line or Terminal. For all users—especially server administrators—who must rapidly generate text files, scripts, or configuration files for their work, this is a very important ability.

Let's proceed to the guide on four standard techniques for creating a text file on the terminal.

Don't forget that Hostman offers a reliable managed Linux VPS for your projects.

Prerequisites for File Creation in Linux

Ensure these prerequisites are met before generating files in a Linux environment using the command-line interface:

  1. Access to a Functional Linux System: You must either have a Linux-based operating system installed on your computer or secure access to a Linux server via SSH (Secure Shell) protocol.

  2. Operational Terminal Interface: Confirm that your terminal application is accessible and fully operational. The terminal serves as your primary gateway to executing commands.

  3. Adequate User Permissions: Verify you can create files within the chosen directory. You may need to use sudo (for directories with access restrictions) to escalate privileges.

  4. Fundamental Commands Proficiency: You must get familiar with essential commands, such as touch for file creation, echo for printing text, cat for viewing file contents, and text editors like nano, vim, or vi for editing files directly.

  5. Text Editing Utilities: Ensure your system includes text editing tools: nano for command line simplicity, vim for advanced configurations, or graphical options like gedit for user-friendly navigation.

  6. Directory Management Expertise: Develop familiarity with directory navigation commands like cd for changing the working directory and ls for listing directory contents. This knowledge streamlines your workflow and avoids potential errors.

Using the touch Command

Generally, we use the touch command to create empty files and change timestamps. It will create an empty file if it doesn't exist already. 

To create a text file in the current directory with the touch command:

  1. Open your terminal emulator.

  2. Type the command:
touch filename.txt

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Change "filename" to your desired name. The timestamps for access and modification will be updated without changes in file content if the file exists already. Otherwise, an empty file is created with a given name. 

  1. Press Enter—if it is successful, there will be no output.

  2. Use the ls command to list the directory content and verify file creation.

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Using the echo Command Redirection

The echo command is widely used to display text on the terminal. But its capabilities go beyond that; it may also be used to write content to a file or create an empty file. For this, combine the echo command with double redirect symbols (you can also use a single >) and the desired filename.

A text file can be created by redirecting the output of the echo command to a file. See how it works:

  1. Open your terminal emulator.

  2. Type the command:

echo “Your text content here” > filename.txt

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Replace the text in double quotations (do not delete them) with yours to add it to the file. 

After you press Enter, your text will be added to the file filename.txt. It will overwrite an existing file, if there is one. Otherwise, it will just create a new one.

  1. Press Enter.

  2. To verify that the file has been created and contains the desired content, use cat command to display the content. 

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Using the cat Command Redirection

In Linux, the cat command is mostly used to concatenate and show file contents. It can, however, also be used to generate a text document by redirecting the standard output of cat to a file.

  1. Open your terminal emulator.

  2. Type the following command:

cat > filename.txt

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Replace filename.txt with the name for your text file. This command instructs cat to receive input rom the terminal and to redirect it into the filename.txt.

  1. Press Enter. The terminal will be waiting for input. 

  2. Enter the text you want in the file. Press Enter after each line.

  3. Press Ctrl + D when you are done. This signals the end of input to the cat and saves the content. 

  4. Run the cat command to check that the file has been created and contains the desired content.

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Using printf for Advanced File Creation

The printf utility is a powerful alternative to echo, offering enhanced formatting options for structuring text. It allows users to create files with precisely formatted content.

  1. Open the terminal.

  2. Use printf to define the text layout, incorporating formatting elements like newlines (\n) or tabs (\t). Redirect the output to a file using the > operator.

Example:

printf "First Line\nSecond Line\nIndented\tThird Line\n" >  formatted_file.txt
  1. Run the cat command to inspect the file's content and ensure the formatting matches expectations.

Append Without Overwriting: To add content to an existing file without overwriting its current data, replace > with the append operator >>:

printf "Additional content here.\n" >> formatted_file.txt

Using a Text Editor

You can also create new files in linux text editors. There is always at least one integrated command-line text editor in your Linux distribution. But you can choose and install a different one according to your preferences, for example, Vim, Nano, or Emacs. Each of them has its own features and advantages.

Vim

vim, which stands for "Vi IMproved," is a very flexible and adaptable text editor. It is well-known for its modal editing, which allows for distinct modes for various functions like text entry, navigation, and editing. It allows split windows, multiple buffers, syntax highlighting, and a large selection of plugins for extra features. To create a text file using vim, follow the steps below:

  1. Open vim, with the desired filename as an argument.

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  1. Press i to switch to Insert mode.

  2. Start typing and editing the filename.txt

  3. To save and exit, press Esc to ensure that command mode is running. Type: wq (write and quit) and press Enter.

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Nano

nano is ideal for short adjustments and straightforward text files because it is lightweight and requires little setup. It provides support for basic text manipulation functions, search and replace, and syntax highlighting. To create a text file using nano, follow the steps below: 

  1. Run nano with the desired filename as an argument. It will open a new buffer for editing the file filename.txt.

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  1. Start typing and editing the filename.txt

  2. To save and exit, press Ctrl + O to write the file, confirm the filename, and then press Ctrl + X to exit Nano.

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Emacs

emacs is a powerful and flexible text editor that supports syntax highlighting, multiple buffers, split windows, and integration with external tools and programming languages. To create a text file using emacs, follow the steps below: 

  1. Open emacs, with the desired filename as an argument.

  2. Start typing and editing the filename.txt

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  1. To save and exit, press Ctrl + X, followed by Ctrl + S to save the file, and then Ctrl + X, followed by Ctrl + C to exit Emacs.

Note: If a message states that "VIM command not found", "nano command not found" or "emacs command not found" in Linux, it typically means that the vim, nano or emacs text editor is not installed on the system, or it's not included in the PATH environment variable, which is a list of directories where the operating system looks for executable files.

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To resolve this, install the text editor first using the command: 

apt-get install vim
apt-get install nano 
apt-get install emacs

Gedit

An intuitive text editor that supports working with plain text and has syntax highlighting for programming languages. A straightforward graphical interface makes it usable for various tasks, from quick edits to complex document preparation.

  1. Open the Gedit Application: Launch Gedit either through the applications menu or by executing the following command in the terminal:

gedit example.txt

Gedit will create a new file if the specified one does not exist.

  1. Input Your Text: Type or paste your desired content into the editor.

  2. Save the File: Save your work with Ctrl + S or select File > Save. If creating a new file, specify a filename and a location.

  3. Verify: Return to the terminal and confirm the file exists with the ls command or review its content with cat.

Linux File Creation Recommendations

  • Ensure you have sufficient permissions to create files in the target directory. If they are insufficient, consider working in a directory where you have full rights (or elevate privileges with sudo).

  • Check if a file with the identical name is already present before using the > operator, as the command will overwrite existing content. To prevent data loss, opt for the append operator >>.

  • Familiarize yourself with the printf, echo, and text editors like vim or nano. These tools will help you reduce errors when working with files in Linux, as well as boost productivity.

  • Use printf for creating files requiring structured content, such as configuration files or scripts with precise formatting needs.

Conclusion

Now you have acquainted yourself with the fundamental skill of creating a file in Linux using the terminal! Using the Linux command line, several fast and efficient methods exist to create and manage text files. Apply several techniques to meet a different requirement using the touch, echo, cat, printf commands, or text editors like vim, nano, gedit, or emacs. Users can select the method that sufficiently meets their requirements, such as creating empty files, appending text, or significantly modifying material. In summary, any of these methods enable Linux users to easily and quickly handle text files straight from the command line.

Linux
01.06.2025
Reading time: 8 min

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How to Set Up Backup with Bacula

Bacula is a cross-platform client-server open source backup software that enables you to back up files, directories, databases, mail server data (Postfix, Exim, Sendmail, Dovecot), system images, and entire operating systems. In this guide, we’ll walk you through the process of installing and configuring Bacula on Linux, as well as creating backups and restoring user data. To get started with Bacula, you’ll need a server or virtual machine running any Linux distribution. In this tutorial, we’ll be using a cloud server from Hostman with Debian 12. Bacula Architecture Bacula’s architecture consists of the following components: Director (Bacula Director) The core component responsible for managing all backup, restore, and verification operations. The Director schedules jobs, sends commands to other components, and writes information to the database. Storage Daemon (Bacula Storage) Handles communication with storage devices such as disks, cloud storage, etc. The Storage Daemon receives data from the File Daemon and writes it to the configured storage medium. File Daemon (Bacula File) The agent installed on client machines to perform the actual backup operations. Catalog A database (MySQL, PostgreSQL, or SQLite) used by Bacula to store information about completed jobs, such as backup metadata, file lists, and restore history. Console (Bacula Console, bconsole) A command-line utility for interacting with Bacula. The Console allows administrators to control the Director via a CLI. GUI tools such as Bacula Web and Baculum are also available. Monitor (Optional) A component for monitoring the Bacula system status. It tracks job statuses, daemon states, and storage device conditions. Creating Test Data for Backup Let’s create some test files to use in our backup. Create a test directory and navigate into it: mkdir /root/test_backups && cd /root/test_backups Now create six sequential files: touch file{1..6}.txt Also, create a directory in advance for storing restored files: mkdir /root/restored-files Installing Bacula In this tutorial, we will install all Bacula components on a single server. However, Bacula also supports a distributed setup where components such as the Director, Storage Daemon, Client, and database can be installed on separate servers. This decentralized setup is suitable for backing up multiple systems without overloading a single server. We'll be using Debian 12 and installing PostgreSQL (version 15) as the backend database. Update the package index and install Bacula (server and client components): apt update && apt -y install bacula-server bacula-client PostgreSQL 15 will also be installed during this process. During installation: When prompted with: “Configure database for bacula-director-pgsql with dbconfig-common?”, press ENTER. When asked to choose the database host, select localhost, since we are installing everything on one server. When prompted with: “PostgreSQL application password for bacula-director-pgsql”, set a password for the Bacula database.  Do not leave this field empty, or a random password will be generated. Re-enter the password when asked to confirm. The installation will then continue normally. After the installation is complete, verify the status of Bacula components and PostgreSQL. Check the status of the Bacula Director: systemctl status bacula-director Check the Storage Daemon: systemctl status bacula-sd Check the File Daemon: systemctl status bacula-fd Check PostgreSQL: systemctl status postgresql If all components display a status of active, then Bacula has been successfully installed and is running. Bacula Configuration Bacula is configured by editing the configuration files of the program components. By default, all Bacula configuration files are located in the /etc/bacula directory. Next, we will configure each Bacula component individually. Configuring Bacula Director Using any text editor, open the bacula-dir.conf configuration file for editing: nano /etc/bacula/bacula-dir.conf Let’s start with the Director block, which sets the main configuration parameters for the Director component: Director { Name = 4142939-bi08079-dir DIRport = 9101 QueryFile = "/etc/bacula/scripts/query.sql" WorkingDirectory = "/var/lib/bacula" PidDirectory = "/run/bacula" Maximum Concurrent Jobs = 20 Password = "ohzb29XNWSFISd6qN6fG2urERzxOl9w68" Messages = Daemon DirAddress = 127.0.0.1 } Explanation of parameters: Name: The name of the Director component. This is a unique identifier used to connect with other components like the File Daemon and Storage Daemon. By default, it includes the server's hostname and the -dir suffix. Example: 4142939-bi08079-dir. DIRport: The port that Bacula Director listens to for incoming connections from the management console (bconsole). Default is 9101. QueryFile: Path to the SQL script file used to run queries on the database. It contains predefined SQL queries for job management, verification, data restoration, etc. Default: /etc/bacula/scripts/query.sql. WorkingDirectory: The working directory where Bacula Director temporarily saves files during job execution. PidDirectory: The directory where the Director saves its PID file (process identifier). This is used to track if the process is running. Maximum Concurrent Jobs: The maximum number of jobs that can run simultaneously. The default is 20. Password: Password used for authenticating the management console (bconsole) with the Director. Must match the one specified in the console’s configuration. Messages: Specifies the name of the message resource that determines how messages (errors, warnings, events) are handled. Common values: Daemon, Standard, Custom. DirAddress: The IP address the Director listens on. This can be 127.0.0.1 for local connections or an external IP. Catalog Configuration By default, Bacula comes with its own PostgreSQL instance on the same host, and in that case, database connection settings don’t need changes. But if you're deploying the database separately (recommended for production), the address, username, and password must be specified in the Catalog block: Catalog { Name = MyCatalog dbname = "bacula"; DB Address = "localhost"; dbuser = "bacula"; dbpassword = "StrongPassword4747563" } Explanation of parameters: dbname: The name of the database used by Bacula (default is bacula). The database must already exist (when deployed separately). DB Address: Host address where the DBMS is deployed. Use IP or a domain name. 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An incremental backup daily at 23:00: Schedule { Name = "WeeklyCycle" Run = Full 1st mon at 00:01 Run = Differential 2nd-5th sun at 23:05 Run = Incremental mon-sun at 23:00 } FileSet Configuration Now, we specify which files and directories will be backed up. This is defined in the FileSet block. Earlier we created /root/test_backups with six files. We’ll specify that path: FileSet { Name = "Full Set" Include { Options { signature = MD5 } File = /root/test_backups } } Explanation of parameters: Name: The name of the FileSet block, used for identification in configuration. Options: Settings that apply to all files listed under Include. signature = MD5: Specifies the checksum algorithm used to verify file integrity. MD5 generates a 128-bit hash to track file changes. Exclude Configuration (Optional) The Exclude block is used to specify files or directories that should not be backed up. This block is placed inside the FileSet definition and acts on files included via Include. 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18 July 2025 · 14 min to read
Linux

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In our case, there will be 3 partitions: a 300 MB UEFI partition (type EFI), a 700 MB swap partition (type Linux swap), and a main filesystem partition taking up all remaining space (type Linux). In your own installation, the number and size of partitions may differ depending on your requirements. Make sure there are no important files on the server’s disk, because it will be formatted later. You may also wish to back it up to preserve important data. Step 1. First, check whether there are any files on the disk you need to save: lsblk The screenshot below shows the list. For creating the described partitions, we will use a 25 GB disk — sda. It currently has Debian 11 installed, which does not contain important files. Step 2. To partition the disk, enter the following command: cfdisk /dev/sda Step 3. In the window that opens, you need to delete all existing partitions. To do this, select a partition and use the Delete button in the lower menu. Step 4. 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Remember, all data will be erased in this process! Step 1. For the first partition, format it using the following command: mkfs.fat -F32 /dev/sda1 This command will create a FAT32 filesystem, which is the recommended format for the UEFI partition. Step 2. Next, assign it a mount point: mkdir /mnt/efi mount /dev/sda1 /mnt/efi Step 3. For the second partition, perform special formatting: mkswap /dev/sda2 Step 4. Then activate the swap partition: swapon /dev/sda2 Step 5. Finally, format the system’s root partition: mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda3 Step 6. After formatting, create its mount point: mount /dev/sda3 /mnt After completing the formatting and mounting, your partitions will be ready for installing and configuring Arch Linux and its main components. 4. Installing the Main Arch Linux Components Step 1. First, let’s install the OS and its core components: pacstrap /mnt base linux grub openssh nano dhcpcd Step 2. Once the installation finishes, you need to generate the fstab file: genfstab -U /mnt >> /mnt/etc/fstab Generating the fstab file makes partition mounting management easier and ensures automatic and consistent mounting at system startup. 5. System Configuration Step 1. To configure Arch Linux after installation, you need to chroot into the OS without rebooting: arch-chroot /mnt Step 2. First, install the nano text editor: pacman -S nano Step 3. Uncomment the encoding for English in the relevant file (you would edit locale.gen): nano /etc/locale.gen Uncomment the line for en_US.UTF-8. After this, save the changes and exit nano, then generate the locales: locale-gen To enable the English language, execute: echo "LANG=en_US.UTF-8" > /etc/locale.conf Step 4. At this step, set up the system clock. For example:  ln -sf /usr/share/zoneinfo/Europe/Nicosia /etc/localtime The region is set. Now synchronize the hardware clock: hwclock --systohc Step 5. Next, set the hostname for your system: echo "hostname" > /etc/hostname Step 6. As the second-to-last step, set the root password. Run: passwd You will be prompted to enter and confirm the password. Step 7. Lastly, set up the previously installed GRUB bootloader to boot the server: grub-install --target=i386-pc /dev/sda Then create the GRUB configuration file: grub-mkconfig -o /boot/grub/grub.cfg This command will automatically configure GRUB. Step 8. Arch Linux is now successfully installed. Exit the chroot: exit Then go to the Access tab in your control panel and switch the server to standard boot mode. After that, click Save and Reboot. You can remove the additional disk after this step. Step 9. The system will boot, but it is not ready for use yet. First, connect to the server and enable the DHCP client daemon: systemctl enable dhcpcd Then start it: systemctl start dhcpcd Make sure the service shows the status active (running). Step 10. Next, configure the SSH connection. First, create a backup of the sshd configuration: cp /etc/ssh/sshd_config /etc/ssh/backup.sshdconf Then set PermitRootLogin to Yes in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file: nano /etc/ssh/sshd_config Finally, enable the SSH daemon: systemctl enable sshd And start it: systemctl start sshd When checking with systemctl status sshd, the service should show active (running) status. Don’t forget to add and configure SSH keys before connecting to the server. 6. Additional Configuration The installation is complete, but you can also perform additional system configuration by reviewing the official Arch Linux setup documentation. To install packages, use the command: pacman -S package_name To update the system, use: pacman -Suy Conclusion In this guide, we reviewed the process of installing Arch Linux on your cloud server and performed its basic configuration. We used a temporary Debian 11 OS and an additional disk for the installation image. By following these steps, you can create a powerful and flexible virtual environment for developing, testing, and running applications based on Arch Linux.
03 July 2025 · 8 min to read
Linux

How to Open a Port on Linux

Opening ports in Linux is an important task that allows certain services or applications to exchange data over the network. Ports act as communication gateways, allowing access to authorized services while blocking unauthorized connections. Managing ports is key to secure access, smooth app functionality, and reliable performance. Understanding Ports and Their Purpose Ports are the logical endpoints of network communication, where devices can send and receive information. HTTP uses port 80, HTTPS uses port 443, and SSH uses port 22. An open port means the service that listens for incoming network traffic is associated with it. A closed port, on the other hand, stops communication via that gateway. Maintaining availability and security requires proper management of Linux open ports. Check Existing Open Ports on Linux Before opening a port, check the open ports in Linux to see which ones are currently active. You may achieve this using several Linux commands. netstat To display open ports, run: netstat -tuln The netstat utility provides a real-time view of active network connections, displaying all listening endpoints. The -tuln flags refine the output to show only TCP and UDP ports without resolving hostnames. Note: In case netstat isn’t installed, install it via: sudo apt install net-tools ss The ss utility can also be utilized to check ports: ss -tuln Compared to netstat, the ss command is more recent and fast. It shows the ports that are in use as well as socket information. nmap For a detailed analysis of Linux open ports, use: nmap localhost The nmap utility scans the given host (localhost in this case) for open ports. This is useful for finding ports exposed to public networks. Note: You can install nmap on Linux via: sudo apt install nmap Opening Ports on Linux Firewall modification is required to grant access through a chosen endpoint. Linux provides several options for handling these tasks, including iptables, ufw, and firewalld. Here are the methods to open ports with these utilities. Method 1: Via iptables Iptables is a robust and lower level firewall utility that grants fine-grained control over network traffic. To open a port with iptables, take these steps: Add a Rule to Allow Traffic from a Specific Port  Enable HTTP access on port 8080 with this command: sudo iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 8080 -j ACCEPT sudo: Execute the command as superuser. iptables: Refers to the firewall utility. -A INPUT: Inserts a rule in the input chain, controlling incoming traffic. -p tcp: Shows that the rule is for TCP traffic. --dport 8080: Points to port 8080 for the rule. ACCEPT: Specifies that incoming traffic matching the rule is accepted. This permits incoming TCP on port 8080. However, iptables changes are volatile and will be undone after reboot. Note: The iptables can be installed with persistent packages using: sudo apt install iptables iptables-persistent Save the Configuration For making the rule permanent and remain even after a system restart, store iptables rules via: sudo netfilter-persistent save This directive preserves current iptables or nftables rules such that they are preserved during reboots. Reload Changes Reload the firewall configuration as needed with: sudo netfilter-persistent reload Method 2: Via UFW Ufw (Uncomplicated Firewall) is a minimal front-end for managing iptables rules. It allows you to easily open ports with simple commands. This is how you can do it: Enable Ufw  First, ensure the ufw firewall is activated: sudo ufw enable Executing this command allows UFW to modify firewall settings. Note: UFW can be installed with: sudo apt install ufw Allow Traffic Via Specific Port  For instance, to open port 22 for SSH, use: sudo ufw allow 22/tcp sudo: Grants superuser privileges. ufw allow: Adds a rule to permit traffic. 22/tcp: Sets port 22 for communication while restricting the rule to TCP protocol. This permits access on port 22, enabling remote SSH connections. Verify the Firewall Status  To ensure the port is accessible and the rule is active, execute: sudo ufw status The status command displays all active rules, including the allowed ports. Method 3: Via Firewalld Firewalld is a dynamic firewall daemon present on Linux. It is simpler to customize the firewall rules compared to using iptables. Here’s how to enable port access via firewalld: Add a Permanent Rule for the Desired Port  To enable HTTPS access on port 443, run: sudo firewall-cmd --permanent --add-port=443/tcp firewall-cmd: Invokes the firewalld command. --permanent: Ensures the rule stays active after the firewall reloads or the system boots. --add-port=443/tcp: Opens port 443 to accept incoming TCP traffic. Note: Install firewalld on Linux via: sudo apt install firewalld Once installed, you should activate and run it: sudo systemctl enable firewalld sudo systemctl start firewalld Reload the Firewall  Finalize the settings to enable the newly defined policy: sudo firewall-cmd --reload Applying firewall modifications makes recent policy updates functional without rebooting. Verification Check whether the port is opened successfully: sudo firewall-cmd --list-all The --list-all command provides a complete list of rules, helping you determine if port 443 is open. Testing the Newly Opened Port Always check if the newly opened port is available for incoming connections. Here’s how: Using telnet Test the port opening via: telnet localhost port_number Successful access means the port is open and responsive. Using nmap Analyze the host to verify if the specified endpoint is accessible.: nmap -p port_number localhost The -p flag specifies the port to scan. Using curl Check HTTP service availability: curl localhost:port_number A successful response confirms the service is running on the opened port. Troubleshooting Common Issues Ports opening may occasionally fail due to configuration errors or conflicting software settings. Follow these tips: Verify Firewall Rules: Run iptables -L or ufw status to assess firewall restrictions and permissions. Check Service Status: Check if the assigned service is active with systemctl status <service-name>. Opening Specific Ports Based on Protocol Understanding the protocol used by the service can help configure ports more effectively. For instance, web traffic typically uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for stable communication, while certain gaming services may require UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for faster packet transmission. Opening a TCP Port To access port 3306 for MySQL traffic: sudo ufw allow 3306/tcp This explicitly permits TCP traffic through port 3306, ensuring stable communication for database queries. Opening a UDP Port To access port 161 for SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), run: sudo ufw allow 161/udp UDP provides faster, connectionless communication, ideal for monitoring tools like SNMP. Managing Port Accessibility Once a port is opened, controlling its visibility ensures security and prevents unauthorized access. Restricting Access to Specific IPs To limit port access to a specific IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.100): sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.100 to any port 22 This allows SSH access via port 22 only from the specified IP address, enhancing security. Closing Ports To revoke access to port 80: sudo ufw deny 80/tcp This denies incoming traffic on port 80, effectively closing it for HTTP services. Conclusion Confirming open ports in Linux is a key step for optimizing network functionality and deploying services effectively. With the use of utilities such as iptables, ufw, or firewalld, you can control traffic securely for your apps. You need to test and debug in order to confirm the port is open and working as expected. From web servers to SSH access, to other network services, port management skills ensure smooth operations and better security.
01 July 2025 · 7 min to read

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