How To Add Swap Space on Ubuntu 22.04

PostgreSQL is a well-known relational database management system that provides high-availability features. These are renowned for their functionalities, such as support for complex statements, views, triggers, and foreign keys. PostgreSQL is installed on Ubuntu to provide a secure as well as flexible DB infrastructure. By installing it on the Linux distribution, you can enable and deal with the vast data in an efficient and secure manner. This infrastructure is designed to deal with different workloads, from single-machine apps to large internet-facing apps with multiple concurrent users. In this tutorial, we will walk through installing and setting up PostgreSQL on Ubuntu. Installing PostgreSQL on Ubuntu Ubuntu comes with the PostgreSQL package in its default repositories. You can install it on a Linux system following the given steps. It downloads the stable package. This is important for DB analysts, administrators, and industries that require a dependable DB solution for managing a large volume of data.  Let’s move forward into each step of installing PostgreSQL with detailed explanations on Ubuntu. Step 1: Refresh Ubuntu Repository First, refresh the Ubuntu package indexes. It is useful for maintaining system stability and security: sudo apt update Step 2: PostgreSQL Installation  PostgreSQL is included in Ubuntu's default repositories, making installation straightforward. To install it with some additional tools, execute the below command: sudo apt install -y postgresql postgresql-contrib Here: postgresql: The core PostgreSQL DB server. postgresql-contrib: Additional utilities and extensions useful for DB. Step 3: Start and Enable Services It is essential to enable the PostgreSQL service after installation and ensure it starts automatically upon bootup. The installed package utilizes the systemd daemon, which deals with the DB server runtime operations.  Run the commands below to make sure the DB server automatically initializes when the server boots up. Let’s initialize the service: sudo systemctl start postgresql And enable it so that it launches automatically when the machine boots up: sudo systemctl enable postgresql Step 4: Verify Installation To verify if the installed package is operating properly, check out its status through the below: sudo systemctl status postgresql In the figure, you can see an active status. It represents the services that are correctly running. Step 5: Access Shell Finally, switch to the PostgreSQL user account and launch the CLI to interact with database operations. Here, the -i flag provides an interactive login shell: sudo -i -u postgres The above display gives access to a user account. Once you're in the user environment, launch the CLI through the given command: psql As you can see in the above screenshot, this command launchs the CLI, where users can perform multiple operations by executing commands. Step 6: Basic Database Commands The creation of a database and a new user for any application is a good practice rather than using the root. In this way, a particular user can access the shell interface and run basic statements on the particular database. Here are general commands with thorough explanations and examples: Creation of the New Database To prevent conflicts, ensure data integrity and control access privileges for different applications or users, you need to create a new database. For creation, use the given command within the shell: CREATE DATABASE hostmandb; The screenshot shows that a database has been created. Creation of the New User Create a customized user and set a strong password: CREATE USER hostman_user WITH ENCRYPTED PASSWORD 'Qwer1234'; We have created a hostman_user with the password Qwer1234. Give Privileges to the Created User You can grant hostman_user complete privileges to the hostmandb through the given command. This allows controlled accessibility to database objects, enhancing data integrity as well as security: GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON DATABASE hostmandb TO hostman_user; Exit Shell For closing the shell, you can utilize the \q option as below: \q The figure shows that the shell has been exited. Finally, you can exit the user environment by executing the given command: exit The output confirms that you have returned to the main system user account. Access a Database as the Particular User You can connect to the particular database from the specific user account through the -U flag: psql -U hostman_user -d hostmandb -h 127.0.0.1 -p 5432 Here: -U hostman_user: Indicates the user. -d hostmandb: Indicates the database name. -h 127.0.0.1: Indicates the host (local machine). -p 5432: Indicates the PostgreSQL default port. In the given output, you can see that the user hostman_user has accessed the hostmandb console. Listing of All Databases View all databases and check whether the hostmandb database is available or not: \l In the figure, you can see that the database hostmandb is listed. Switch/Connect to the Particular Database To switch to a specific database, such as hostmandb, within PostgreSQL, use the \c command: \c hostmandb The above output confirms that the postgres user has successfully connected to the hostmandb database. Creation of the Particular Table To create a customized table, use the below statement. In our example, we create a hostmantb table: CREATE TABLE hostmantb(    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,    name VARCHAR(100),    age INTEGER,    department_id INTEGER); Here: id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY: It creates an auto-incrementing primary key column with the name id. name VARCHAR(100): It creates a name column that can store up to 100 characters. age INTEGER: It creates an age column that stores integer values. department_id INTEGER: This line creates a department_id column that stores integer values. The outcome of the above screenshot confirms that the table hostmantb is successfully created with specific attributes. List All Tables in the Particular Database For listing all tables in the hostmandb database, use the \dt command: \dt It displays all tables as well as confirms that the hostmantb is listed above. Overview a Table's Structure You can view the structure of the created table through the \d command. Let’s display the structure of hostmantb table: \d hostmantb In the above figure, you can see the complete structure of hostmantb table with id, name, age, and department_id having specific types. Input Entries into a Particular Table To input entries into a hostmantb table, use the below statement. This way, we input the values Peter, 35, and 1 to the columns name, age, and department_id, respectively: INSERT INTO hostmantb(name, age, department_id) VALUES ('Peter', 35, 1); The output confirms that we have successfully input data into the hostmantb table. Select All Data from a Particular Table You can select all data from the hostmantb table through the below statement: SELECT * FROM hostmantb; Modify Data in Particular Table For modifying data in hostmantb, you can utilize the below statement. For example, set the age column to 40 for the row where the name column equals Peter: UPDATE hostmantb SET age = 40 WHERE name = 'Peter'; The output confirms that the age column is updated. Remove Data from the Particular Table In this section, you can remove data from the specific table through the DELETE statement. It deletes all entries from the hostmantb table where the value in the name column is Peter: DELETE FROM hostmantb WHERE name = 'Peter'; In the screenshot, one entry from the hostmantb table is removed. Exit CLI You can easily exit the CLI via the \q utility: \q This tutorial has given you thorough guidelines for every step involved in installing as well as setting PostgreSQL on Ubuntu.  Conclusion By installing PostgreSQL on Ubuntu, you can optimize the DB infrastructure. PostgreSQL is often chosen for its freely available nature, which allows for customization, the system's stability and security features. In addition, PostgreSQL's supporters' help and comprehensive guide make it simpler to enhance operations and troubleshoot problems.  This combination makes sure that the DB system is both powerful as well as adaptable to several needs. In this tutorial, there are a lot of fundamental DB commands to get you started with database administration. Therefore, you will be able to create databases, and users and perform basic tasks.

ConfigServer Security & Firewall (CSF) is a highly regarded tool for securing Linux servers against varying cyberattacks. Its robust functionality and simple interface proves that it is the best choice for system administrators. Whether you're managing a small server or large network, this tool provides an effective defense mechanism which is easy to deploy and manage. The below manual discusses the installation process and configuration of this tool on Ubuntu 22.04 LTS to maximize protection and performance of the server. Advantages of Usage of CSF Firewall on Ubuntu 22.04 LTS This versatile security solution has a variety of benefits tailored for servers using Linux as an operating system. User-Friendly Management With an easy-to-edit configuration file and simple command-line utilities, it ensures even novice administrators can quickly implement server security measures. Powerful Security Features Port Restrictions: Secure sensitive services like MySQL (port 3306) and SSH (port 22) by allowing or denying specific traffic. DDoS Attack Mitigation: Safety against high-traffic denial-of-service attempts. False Login Notifications: Automatically blocks IPs after repeated false login attempts to protect from brute force attacks. GeoIP Filtering: Restriction ofentry from certain geographic regions which gives enhanced security Effortless Update Integrated with the system's package manager, CSF updates seamlessly, making sure that firewall contains the latest security patches. Low Resource Consumption Optimized for performance, this tool works without placing unnecessary strain on system resources. Custom Alerts and Logs Receive real-time notifications for security events and go through detailed logs to monitor server activity. Step-by-Step Guide to Install CSF on Ubuntu 22.04 LTS Below is a detailed manual which explains installing it on Ubuntu 22.04 LTS. Step 1: Updating the System First, update the system’s package repository to make sure you have the latest software. To update the system’s package repository, use the following command: sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y Step 2: Installation of Dependencies CSF relies on some dependencies to function appropriately. To install dependencies, use command below: sudo apt install -y perl libwww-perl liblwp-protocol-https-perl iptables nano Essential Dependencies: Perl: It is a programming language. Many of the CSF scripts and configuration tools are written in Perl. Installing perl will ensure that the system will run necessary scripts to manage firewall operations properly. libwww-perl and liblwp-protocol-https-perl: These libraries handle HTTP & HTTPS requests. CSF uses them to fetch updates, download remote blocklists, and securely manage real-time threat data feeds over HTTPS, enhancing firewall’s ability to keep itself updated with the new security information. iptables: Serving as the foundation for the Linux firewall functionality, iptables is integral for operations. It allows to define and implement traffic filtering rules, block specific ports, and restrict connectivity by IP addresses at the kernel level. nano: While optional, it is included to simplify the method of editing the configuration files directly from the terminal. It enables system administrators for doing quick modifications to firewall settings while staying in terminal. Step 3: Download and install CSF The package is available to download through its official website. For downloading, run these commands: cd /usr/srcsudo wget https://download.configserver.com/csf.tgz Extract the files: sudo tar -xvzf csf.tgz For installation, go to the extracted directory:  cd csf And execute the installer by running the following command: sudo sh install.sh When the installation is complete, it will look like the following: To confirm installation, check the CSF version by running: sudo csf -v CSF version will appear on the screen: Step 4: Configure CSF Firewall Settings CSF needs to be configured according to the user’s needs. There are two ways to configure it, through GUI and through terminal. By Terminal For this, we will perform changes in csf.conf located at /etc/csf/csf.conf. Use the following command to open the csf.conf file: sudo nano /etc/csf/csf.conf Output: Do the following changings for basic firewall protection: Testing mode (TESTING = "1") temporarily clears firewall rules to prevent being locked out during configuration. Enable it until you verify all settings, then disable it (TESTING = "0") to activate full protection. TESTING = "0" Allow MySQL Port: If you need to allow using MySQL, update csf.conf as below: TCP_IN = "22,3306" After modifications have been done in configuration, apply them, using: sudo csf -rsudo systemctl restart csf By GUI This tool already has a GUI mode built in. It needs to be configured through the csf.conf and a few commands. Following is the procedure of enabling it. 1. Install prerequisites: To install prerequisites, use the following command: apt-get install libio-socket-ssl-perl libcrypt-ssleay-perl \                    libnet-libidn-perl libio-socket-inet6-perl libsocket6-perl 2. Perform amendments in csf.conf: Perform edits in csf.conf to enable the UI mode and allow endpoints. Also update the username and password for UI. Note that the default username and password have to be updated. So to access the csf.conf, use the following command: sudo nano /etc/csf/csf.conf Now find ui = "0" and convert it to "1". This will enable the UI mode. Then find UI_PORT =  and write an entry of 7171. This will be the specific gateway on which you can interact with the GUI. Be sure that the port number is always bigger than 1024. After these, also edit the UI_USER and UI_PASSWORD. If the default UI_USER and UI_PASSWORD are not updated the UI will not work. Its a MUST to edit these from default values. Place the same port in TCP_IN and TCP_OUT.  Enter this command to add your IP address to ui.allow file: sudo echo "your_IP_adress" >> /etc/csf/ui/ui.allow In this command you have to paste your IP address. If you do not know your IP address, then you can just google "Whats my IP" and it will show you your IP. Just copy and paste in the above command and hit enter. Then in the terminal, type: csf -rsystemctl restart csfsystemctl restart lfd This will properly apply the ammendmets you have performed. Now, your UI has been set up. Now you need to enter your IP address with the endpoint you allowed (7171). Finally, interact with the UI. To connect with the GUI, you need to type the IP of the server along with the port that you set (7171) in your browser. In my case it was the following: 195.133.93.222:7171 195.133.93.222: The public IP address of the server 7171: Gateway number which I set Now you have the GUI. Additional CSF Firewall Commands With the tool now installed, you can make additional commands that can be highly useful for enhancing firewall management. Following is some detail: To block an IP address: sudo csf -d <IP_ADDRESS> To allow an IP address: sudo csf -a <IP_ADDRESS> To view status: sudo csf -l To restart: sudo csf -r Setting Up Alerts in CSF Activating notifications allows the admins of the server to get timely updates on important events, such as IP blocks, failed login attempts, and other security incidents. These are important in quickly detecting, as well as addressing safety risks. Below is the explanation about setting up notifications via email. Updating the Configuration File Use a text editor like Nano to open the tool’s main configuration file by writing: sudo nano /etc/csf/csf.conf Search for the line starting with LF_EMAIL_ALERT. This setting determines whether CSF sends email notifications. LF_EMAIL_ALERT = "0" Change the value from 0 to 1 to enable email notifications. LF_EMAIL_ALERT = "1" Find the LF_ALERT_TO option in the file, which defines the recipient email for alerts. Add the preferred email here: LF_ALERT_TO = "[email protected]" Define email of the sender by utilizing the option LF_ALERT_FROM. The notifications will be sent from this email address: LF_ALERT_FROM = "[email protected]" Press CTRL + O to save changes and CTRL + X to exit Nano. Restart CSF and LFD: sudo csf -rsudo systemctl restart lfd Customizing Alert Types You can customize which types of events would trigger email notifications. A few common options in the config are below: Login Failures: Controlled by LF_ALERT_LOGIN. Blocked IP Alerts: Enabled by LF_EMAIL_ALERT. Excessive Resource Usage: Configured via LF_ALERT_RESOURCE. For example, to enable login failure notifications, set: LF_ALERT_LOGIN = "1" Benefits of Email Notifications Real-Time Monitoring: Immediate awareness of suspicious activities or potential threats. Quick Response: Reduces the time between detecting and mitigating safety issues. Audit Trail: Email warnings provide a record of important safety events. By enabling notifications, it becomes an even more proactive tool in managing server safety. Example: Configuring CSF for WordPress Here's how to configure CSF to meet the requirements for a server hosting WordPress (WP), MySQL, and Redis: 1: Open the CSF configuration file: sudo nano /etc/csf/csf.conf 2: Allow endpoints 80 (HTTP) and 443 (HTTPS). These are required for serving the WordPress site. Find the line that starts with TCP_IN and modify it as follows: TCP_IN = "22,80,443,3306,6379" Explanation: 22: SSH access 80: HTTP for WordPress 443: HTTPS for WordPress 3306: MySQL gateway 6379: Redis gateway 3: Add a custom rule to limit interaction to Redis (port 6379) from the internal network only. Find the csf.allow file and add: 192.168.1.0/24 6379 # Internal network access to Redis Replace 192.168.1.0/24 with your internal network's CIDR notation. 4: Restrict MySQL connectivity. Allow MySQL authorization from internal network. In the csf.allow file, add: 192.168.1.0/24 3306 # Internal network access to MySQL Allow MySQL access from an external developer IP. In the same csf.allow file, add: 203.0.113.5 3306 # Developer IP access to MySQL Replace 203.0.113.5 with the developer's external IP address. 5: Restrict SSH Access. To allow SSH visibility only from a specific subnet, add the subnet to csf.allow: 192.168.1.0/24  # SSH access from the specific subnet Also, explicitly deny SSH visibility from all other IPs in csf.deny: ALL 22 # Block SSH for all except explicitly allowed IPs 6: Apply changes by restarting CSF and LFD: sudo csf -rsudo systemctl restart lfd 7: Verify that the connections points are correctly opened: sudo csf -l Check specific IP connectivity using: csf -g <IP_ADDRESS> Conclusion Using ConfigServer Security & Firewall on Ubuntu 22.04 LTS significantly improves the safety of the server. Along with its advanced functions like managing gateways, DDoS protection, and warnings in real-time, it also provides a comprehensive solution for safeguarding servers of Linux. To find more about different options and settings of this tool, check its official website. By utilizing this guide, you'll establish a robust firewall infrastructure capable of defending against modern cyber threats while maintaining optimal server performance. In addition, you can install Ubuntu on our cloud VPS server.

In this guide, we will describe installing PHP and PHP-FPM on Ubuntu 24.04. PHP, which stands for Hypertext Preprocessor, is a language that is widely used and open-sourced, mainly for web development. PHP is the only PHP FastCGI implementation, that is extremely useful for high-traffic websites. At the end of this guide, you should be ready to go with PHP running on your server. Prerequisites Before we start, please confirm you have the following: Ubuntu 24.04 LTS installed on the server A user account with the sudo access An essential command-line operation understanding A reliable internet connection for downloading software packages To ensure that your system is up to date, run the following commands: sudo apt updatesudo apt upgrade Install Apache Launch the Apache web server using the following command: sudo apt install apache2 Install PHP Let's begin with installing the PHP package in Ubuntu 24.04 server. First, open a terminal on your Ubuntu system. PHP and common modules are included in the installation action: sudo apt install php That command installs the core PHP package, the command-line interface, and common libraries. Make sure the installation works: php -v Install PHP Extensions PHP extensions are the way to go to extending PHP installation with certain functions. Start by installing extensions: sudo apt install php-curl php-mbstring php-xml Short description: php-mysql: Allows MySQL database connection php-gd: Adds ability to manipulate images php-curl: Makes possible to communicate with servers php-mbstring: Provides multibyte string support php-xml: Enables XML support php-zip: Enables ZIP support Additional extensions can be installed as you see fit for your projects. You can search them using: apt-cache search php- Install and Configure PHP-FPM PHP-FPM is essential when dealing with high-traffic websites. To install and configure it: Install the package: sudo apt install php-fpm Launch PHP-FPM service. Depending on the installation, version number may differ. sudo systemctl start php8.3-fpm Tell PHP-FPM to go on boot: sudo systemctl enable php8.3-fpm Verfy PHP-FPM is working: systemctl status php8.3-fpm This will output a response that says "Active (Running)" if everything is working as expected. Test PHP and PHP-FPM To ensure that PHP and PHP-FPM are both running with no problems, create a test file then serve it via the website's server. Let's say it uses Apache in this example: Generate PHP Info File. To show PHP settings using the phpinfo() function, do the following: mkdir -p /var/www/htmlecho "<?php phpinfo(); ?>" | sudo tee /var/www/html/info.php Set Up Apache for PHP-FPM. Ensure Apache is made compatible for PHP-FPM, by first finding Apache configuration file (usually /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-default.conf) then inserting: <FilesMatch \.php$>   SetHandler "proxy:unix:/var/run/php/php8.3-fpm.sock|fcgi://localhost/"</FilesMatch> Remember we must alter specific PHP version and socket path to suit individual settings of the server. Activate PHP and PHP-FPM. Enable PHP and PHP-FPM following these instructions: sudo apt install libapache2-mod-phpsudo a2enmod proxy_fcgi setenvif Reboot Apache. Apply changes by restarting Apache server: sudo systemctl restart apache2 Access PHP Info Page. First open your web browser and go to: http://your_server_ip/info.php Replace [server_ip] with the server IP address or domain. You can see details of your PHP installation. Install Multiple PHP Versions For particular projects you might need to run different applications, each one may require different functionalities. This is the way to manage and manipulate multiple PHP versions on Ubuntu 24.04. First, add PHP repository: sudo apt install software-properties-commonsudo add-apt-repository ppa:ondrej/php && sudo apt update Install PHP versions you need: sudo apt install php8.1 php8.1-fpm Deselect one PHP version and elect the other: sudo update-alternatives --set php /usr/bin/php8.1 If you are using multiple PHP versions, ensure that your web server is pointing to the appropriate PHP-FPM socket. Securing PHP and PHP-FPM: Best Practices As a web developer, you know the importance of incorporating both PHP and PHP-FPM into web applications that are safe and robust. In this section, we will introduce a number of security steps that you should adapt using PHP and PHP-FPM. 1. Keep PHP and PHP-FPM Updated PHP and PHP-FPM should be up to date. Doing regular updates will eliminate known security breaches and provide overall security improvements. You need to check for updates as often as possible then update the system as soon as the updates are available. 2. Configure PHP Securely To configure PHP securely, start by disabling unnecessary and potentially dangerous functions, such as exec, shell_exec, and eval, in the PHP configuration file (php.ini). Use open_basedir directive to restrict PHP’s access to specific directories, preventing unauthorized access to sensitive files. Set display_errors to Off in production to avoid exposing error messages that could provide insights to attackers. Limit file upload sizes and execution times to reduce the risk of resource exhaustion attacks. Besides, ensure that PHP runs under a dedicated, restricted user account with minimal permissions to prevent privilege escalation. Regularly update PHP to the latest stable version to patch vulnerabilities and improve security. 3. Use Safe Error Reporting To ensure an error-free application, it is quite handy locating and correcting code bugs in a development environment. In production environment, you have the possibility to hide the PHP errors by setting the display_error directive to be off, and you should also set the log_errors directive to be On, thus this will help you prevent PHP from showing errors to the users whereas your server will log it in a safe location without problems to users. 4. Implement Input Validation Being aware of the input validations is quite crucial during the programming of your software. Make sure that all deficiencies are tested and only SQL statements containing their SQL equivalent that can produce outwardly neutral queries via prepared statements is considered safe. 5. Secure PHP-FPM Configuration PHP-FPM is required to run using a non-usual user account with minium rights. Furthermore, access to the PHP-FPM socket or port should be very limited to the web application. 6. Enable Open_basedir You need to bind open_basedir directive in order to restrict access files within the given directory. In this case, if you attempt to visit a forbidden directory and the request is accidentally transmitted to the server, PHP will prevent you from doing so. 7. Use HTTPS We need to secure web calls by making apps HTTPS-only, which is the only prominent way to block all the known hacking tricks. Conclusion With this guide, you've successfully set up PHP and PHP-FPM on Ubuntu 24.04. Your server is now configured for dynamic web applications. To maintain security and performance, remember to keep the system and packages regularly updated.